PART THREE: THE GEOPHYSIOLOGICAL DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE TRANSMISSION OF GREEN ENERGY.

Having looked at the sources, and conversion, of alternative energy this chapter explores the transmission of green energy. Once energy is ready for use it has to be transported to wherever it is wanted - in the case of conventional fuels this often means half way around the world. The means of transporting alternative energy are basically no different from those being used at present i.e. the global oil network (which would carry bioliquids), the global gas network (which would carry biogas/hydrogen), the electricity grid, the hot water network and the global road network. All of these transmission systems cause geophysiological damage which need to be included in the environmental accounts of alternative energy. The first section explores the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of gas/liquid fuels and hot water by what is called here the global pipeline industry. The second section explores the geophysiological damage caused by electricity grids. The third section looks at the global road network (including the global transport industry) since a proportion of alternative fuels will need to be transported by vehicles. No matter how environmentally friendly alternative energy may be there seems little likelihood of reducing the geophysiological damage caused by the transportation of alternative energy.

ONE: THE GLOBAL PIPELINE INDUSTRY

3.1.1: Background.

3.1.1.1: The Hidden Industry.

The pipeline industry is the world's most invisible industry. It is also one of the world's bigger industries. It has created oil, gas, water supply, sewage disposal, irrigation, and drainage, pipeline systems, and, most recent of all, a telecommunications' pipeline systems (in the past, mainly to carry telephone cables but more recently, tv cables), - only a small fraction of electricity is transmitted underground through pipelines. In the future, it is likely that oil pipelines will be converted to the transmission of bioliquid fuels; gas pipelines will be converted to the transmission of biogas and, eventually, hydrogen; water pipelines will become more prevalent transporting hot water from alternative power stations; and it is also possible that the sewage pipeline system will be transformed so that instead of dumping ooman sewage into rivers and seas and feeding the world's toxic Algae, it will be connected with industries which can recycle these nutrients.

The global pipeline industry will be as vital to the economic and financial viability of alternative energy as it is currently to fossil fuels. It will also play a critical role in determining the geophysiological viability of alternative energy. Given that the alternative energy industry will be taking over many of the pipeline systems and associated installations constructed by the fossil fuel, and water, industries then alternative energy is going to have to take some responsibility for the geophysiological damage caused by this infrastructure.

The construction of a pipeline network causes geophysiological damage. Similar types of geophysiological damage are caused whether the pipelines are transporting fossil fuels or alternative energies. The following sections provide an insight into the scale of the geophysiological damage that has been caused by the pipeline industry and this should indicate the scale of the damage that could be caused if alternative energy takes over and extends this infrastructure.

3.1.1.2: The Nature of the Global Pipeline Industry.

3.1.1.2.1: The Components of the Global Pipeline Industry.

The global pipeline industry consists of the manufacture of pipes (concrete, metal, plastic), the laying of pipes and the maintenance of the pipeline system. Many pipelines are made of concrete so the industry is dependent on the quarrying and cement industries. The pipeline industry uses a wide array of cranes, digging and lifting machines, pneumatic drills and other equipment. Depending on what is being transported through the pipelines, pumping stations have to be constructed after a specified distance to keep the material flowing. The matrix of industries contributing to the global pipeline industry is extensive and the geophysiological damage they cause should be included in any assessment of the geophysiological damage caused by the pipeline industry.

3.1.1.2.2: The Scale of the Various Pipeline Industries.

3.1.1.2.2.1: The Scale of the Global Gas Network.

The natural gas pipeline network already covers large parts of the world.

The Soviet Union.

"The USSR has 38% of global gas reserves. The Soviet block accounts for 35% of global gas exports. Over the past two decades, it has increased gas production (which now stands at 815 billion cubic metres) by 400%. By the mid-1990s, Soviet production is set to reach 1 trillion cubic metres. The former Soviet block has a gas supply system which is unrivalled in the world; 210,000 kilometres of main pipelines strung out across more than 500 operating gas fields, with a further 94 ready for development and 349 being appraised." [1] ; "Russia has 125,000 miles of oil and gas pipelines, and Greenpeace reckons that half are past their expiry date." [2]

The United States.

"Potentially the most damaging consequences of the (1989 US-Canada) FTA have resulted from the deregulation of United States investment and the removal of restrictions on energy exports from Canada (one of the main United States objectives in negotiating the FTA). Under a $10bn project agreed in 1990, the Canadian subsidiaries of Esso, Gulf and Shell - all of which vigorously promoted the FTA - have been given export licenses entitling them to open up the Mackenzie Delta in the Canadian Arctic to gas exploration and to export up to 87% of the area's natural gas reserves. Apart from undermining previous resource conservation measures, their operations are likely to have adverse environmental consequences for the region's unique and fragile ecosystem, including the major fish spawning areas on which much of Canada's coastal fleet relies." [3]

Future Gas Developments.

There are plans for massive extensions of the global natural gas network, "In Europe, major new pipelines are being extended from Norway, Russia, and northern Africa .. Reliance on natural gas is also expanding rapidly in the developing world, including Argentina, Mexico, Egypt, and the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Soon, new pipelines will allow Bolivia to sell gas to Brazil, and Myanmar to sell it to Thailand. China, which relies minimally on natural gas today .. is building major new pipelines in Guangdong and Szechuan. Plans are also being made to extend an undersea pipeline from the rich gas reserves of the middle east to the one-fifth of humanity living on the Indian subcontinent. Japan, meanwhile, is considering a domestic pipeline system, including undersea connections to Russian oil fields off Sakhalin Island and to south east Asia, which would open the way for a Far Eastern pipeline network." [4]

3.1.1.2.2.2: The Global Oil Pipeline Network.

There are thousands of oil pipelines around the world.

Alaska.

One of the longest, and most infamous, oil pipelines stretches across the vast alaskan Wilderness, "1000 miles of pipelines." [5]

Ecuador.

"For nearly 20 years, international oil companies, led by Texaco, have sucked oil from a vast reserve near the headwaters of the Amazon. A pipeline stretches from the Oriente (the Ecuadorian Amazon), climbs nearly 10,000 feet over the Andes and drops back down to the coast for refining export (mostly to the US)." [6] ; "A pipeline (SOTE) running from their oil fields in the North-Eastern Oriente across the Andes to the Pacific port of Esmeraldes ... This pipeline has one more year of its natural life-time left, and is in danger of rupturing anywhere along its length." [7]

Nigeria.

"More than US$30 billion worth of oil has been extracted from the Ogoni region of the Niger delta. Oil provides Nigeria with the bulk of its export income. For the last 30 years the (Ogoni) people's land has been criss-crossed by surface pipelines and illuminated by 24 hour gas flares. In October 1990 demonstrators occupied a Shell rig at Umuechem, halting oil production. The authorities sent in the Nigerian Mobile Police Force. 80 demonstrators were allegedly killed and 495 homes destroyed. Shell gets 14% of its global crude oil production from Nigeria, the second largest area of operations after the USA." [8]

Papua New Guinea.

"Chevron .. has built a network of roads and a 275 mile underground oil pipeline (from Lake Kutubu) which runs through the rainforest to the coast." [9]

Venezuela.

"On Venezuela's Paria Peninsular, a consortium of multinational corporations is planning a vast network of roads, pipelines, and refineries to produce gas." [10]

3.1.1.2.2.3: The Sewage System.

This section is slightly different from those above since the sewage system does not transport green energy, it transports material that could be converted into green energy. There is no global sewage system. Only the over-industrialized countries have national sewage networks. The transportation of ooman manure via the sewage system was discussed in the section on biomass but no attempt was made to assess the geophysiological damage it entailed. The following geophysiological analysis of the global pipeline industry could be used as a means for determining the geophysiological damage caused by sewage systems.

3.1.1.2.2.4: The Underground Cable System.

A telecommunications' pipeline network is beginning to emerge in many over-industrialized countries carrying telephone and tv links.

3.1.1.2.2.5: The Hot Water Network.

There is no global hot water system like the gas/oil networks but around the world there are a few district heating schemes which transport hot water through a local pipeline network.

3.1.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Oil/Gas/Water/Sewage Pipeline Industries.

3.1.2.1: Mining.

The mining of the ores and raw materials needed by the pipeline industry releases greenhouse gases.

3.1.2.2: Processing.

The processing of the ores and raw materials needed by the pipeline industry releases greenhouse gases. The cement industry produces cement for the manufacture of pipelines.

3.1.2.3: Chemical Industry.

The chemical industry produces the plastic for the manufacture of pipelines.

3.1.2.4: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing industry manufacturers cranes, vehicles, and digging equipment for the pipeline industry.

3.1.2.5: Site Clearance.

Clearing sites to make way for the pipeline network, retail petrol pump stations, pipeline pumping stations, underground storage tanks, etc, may involve deforestation which releases greenhouse gases.

3.1.2.6: The Construction of the Pipeline Network, Underground Storage Tanks, Pumping Stations.

The construction of the pipeline network, retail petrol pump stations, pipeline pumping stations, underground storage tanks, etc, releases greenhouse gases.

3.1.2.7: The Maintenance of the Pipeline Network.

The maintenance of the pipeline network requires depots where equipment and materials are stored. Some of the practices used by the pipeline industry to maintain the pipeline network cause considerable levels of pollution, "Rivers running red, estuaries bright with a strange fluorescent glow; these are not images of a post-apocalyptic world, but present day reality. Every year, the oil industry releases millions of gallons of toxic, brightly coloured waste water. Its initial use: to test new pipelines. The water is pumped through at high pressure and a diver, or remote controlled scanner, traces the length of the line, looking for any leaked dye that would indicate faults in welds or joins. (the colorant traditionally used is rhodamine B)." [11]

3.1.2.8: Liquefaction.

Natural gas is often liquefied before being pumped through the pipeline network.

3.1.2.9: Transportation.

The transportation of ores to processing industries; the transportation of processed materials to manufacturing industries; the transportation of the manufactured equipment, pipes, to pipelaying sites, etc release greenhouse gases.

3.1.2.10: Leakages/Accidents.

The following are examples of leakages from the current global pipeline networks. It should give an idea of the pollution they release.

3.1.2.10.1: The Current Scale of Natural Gas Leaks.

North America, Europe and the Soviet Union.

"The use of natural gas as an energy source liberates enormous amounts of methane. Natural gas extracted from gas fields is typically transmitted by pipeline to distribution centres or liquefied and shipped. During transmission to the user, gas is lost by leakage or venting. The rate of loss is poorly known, but estimates range from 1 to 5% in North America and Europe and higher, possibly up to 10% in some centrally planned countries, especially the Soviet Union. The amounts lost to the atmosphere may be substantial, they may range up to 50 million tons per year." [12]

Mexico.

"At 5.43am the Mexico City shanty town suburb of San Juan Ixhautepec was rocked by a massive explosion that enveloped it in flames. This was the initial blast of an hour-long series of disturbances registering 0.5 on the Richter earthquake scale. Fireballs measuring 300 metres in diameter roared through the streets for nearly two hours, destroying entire blocks of houses and incinerating every form of life in their path. The reason for the explosion was careless storage of liquefied petroleum gas, mostly in the form of propane, at the state-owned pemex oil company's gas complex at Ixhautepec. Well over 1,500 died in the disaster, and least 7,000 were seriously injured." [13]

Soviet Union.

.. "where the leakage rate of the Moscow city system is estimated at 17% (compared with less than 1% in most US cities)." [14]

United States.

The belief that american technology is superior to that in russia because gas transmission losses are supposedly only 5% may be a bit of cold war rhetoric, "Some American investigators believe that pipelines carrying the gas (to power stations) leak up to 10% of their contents. Since unburnt methane is a greenhouse gas, the pipelines may be a growing source of global warming as may gas vented from some oil fields." [15]

Worldwide.

Methane is a major greenhouse gas and some commentators believe it will eventually become more important than Carbon dioxide in boosting global burning. There are a number of different sources of methane emissions but leaks from natural gas pipelines are significant, "According to the estimates in the World Resources Institute (WRI), almost 40% (of methane) is estimated to come from leakages during hard coal mining and natural gas exploration and transportation as well as from urban land fills and sewage plants." [16] The scale of the leakages is so severe that some commentators believe it could scupper environmental plans to introduce natural gas as a replacement for oil, "A study by Dean Abrahamson of the University of Minnesota found that, compared with oil heating, the methane leaking from natural gas distribution systems has such a powerful greenhouse effect that it offsets any CO₂ reduction benefits of switching to gas heating." [17] ; "It is conceivable that cars running on natural gas would produce more 'CO2 equivalent' than conventional petroleum driven vehicles, because of methane leakages occurring during the production and distribution of fuel." [18]

3.1.2.10.2: The Current Scale of Oil Leaks from Underground Storage Tanks.

It has been estimated that, "There are at least 80,000 underground storage tanks (USTs) in the UK, the majority at filling stations, and recent US research suggests that up to 30% of USTs and their pipelines leak. One gallon of petrol can contaminate millions of gallons of groundwater. The older the tanks, the more likely they are to leak." [19] The mirror newspaper often carries esso adverts or promotions and it puts an altogether different reflection on this issue, "Esso is also the leader in reducing pollution from petrol before it reaches your car. Most of its journey to your local esso service station is through an underground pipeline safe from spillage. While tankers deliver to major service stations, no vapour is allowed to escape but is trapped and later chilled back into petrol - and that saves 850,000 gallons each year from getting into the air." [20]

3.1.2.10.3: The Current Scale of Oil Leaks.

Alaska.

There have been massive leaks from the vast alaskan pipeline, "Building the Alaska pipeline resulted in the spillage of 2 million gallons of oil; keeping the oil moving through the pipeline emits formaldehyde, benzene, touene, xylene and 700 tons of sulphur dioxide and 600 tons of nitrogen oxides per year. What was once 800 square miles of pristine wilderness is now dotted with piles of hazardous solid waste, 350 miles of road, and 1000 miles of pipelines." [21]

Brazil.

"Seepage from a leaking petrol pipeline in the south-east Brazilian town of Cubatao was allowed to accumulate, despite complaints of fumes. When the leak was finally ignited, the explosion resulted in a giant fireball that razed the town to the ground. At least 600 died and 3,000 sustained injuries." [22]

Colombia.

"On Saturday a 200 strong guerrilla force attacked an isolated jungle oilfield (in Colombia). The day before, guerrillas had bombed the main pipeline, halting the flow of 240,000 barrels per day of crude oil and spilling 10,000 barrels of oil into a river." [23]

Ecuador.

The Ecuadorian pipeline has suffered massive leaks, "For the past two decades, this pipeline and other oil activities leaked more than 16 million gallons of oil (more than the Exxon Valdez spill) into the rainforest." [24] ; "In its in-depth study, Amazon Crude, the US Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) has documented the long and damaging involvement of foreign oil companies in Ecuador's "burgeoning and environmentally destructive oil industry." Over the past two decades, foreign oil companies, led by Texaco, have extracted 1.5 billion barrels of crude from Ecuador. Oil spills from the Trans Ecuadorian Pipeline alone have dumped 16.8 million gallons of oil into the rainforest." [25] ; "Texaco came to Ecuador in 1964 and officially left in 1992. In 28 years they took, as the major operating partner in their consortium, 57.5 billion (US) gallons of oil. What did they leave behind? 65 million litres of oil spilt onto the rainforest and into its rivers (that's about twice the amount spilt by the Exxon Valdez disaster). A pipeline (SOTE) running from their oil fields in the North-Eastern Oriente across the Andes to the Pacific port of Esmeraldes ... This pipeline has one more year of its natural life-time left, and is in danger of rupturing anywhere along its length." [26]

Romania.

"There have been several cases of people tapping straight into (oil) pipelines. In Romania during the cold winter months several people were killed trying to siphon off oil for heating. But although resulting leakages badly pollute the ground, the amounts stolen by individuals are insignificant." [27]

United States of Soviet Russia.

"The former Soviet Union is still the largest oil producer in the world. But its antiquated industry is on the verge of collapse, the oil fields are symptomatic of Soviet mismanagement. In the last five years (oil) production has dropped by more than 40%. Because of poor maintenance 30,000 wells are not working. Wasteful and inefficient at the best of times the industry is now counting on help from the west. Leaks from oil pipelines alone are thought to be the equivalent of 400 Exxon Valdez accidents. This is just one of the many environmental catastrophes that with the collapse of communism have come to light in the former Soviet Union." [28] ; .. "the worst earthquake in Russia's history. And the quake, which registered 7.5 on the Richter scale, could cause an environmental catastrophe. It ruptured a 60 mile stretch of pipeline in more than 15 places. All oil wells in the eastern island of Sakhalin, which was hit by the quake, have also been destroyed." [29]

3.1.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Pipeline Industry.

3.1.3.1: Mining.

The mining of the ores and raw materials needed by the pipeline industry causes geophysiological damage.

3.1.3.2: Processing.

The processing of the ores, raw materials needed by the pipeline industry causes geophysiological damage. The cement industry manufactures cement for the pipeline industry also suffocates the land.

3.1.3.3: Chemical Industry.

The chemical industry which produces the plastic for the manufacture of pipelines, suffocates the land.

3.1.3.4: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing industry manufacturers cranes, vehicles, digging equipment, etc for the pipeline industry. All of these manufacturing industries cause geophysiological damage.

3.1.3.5: The Construction of the Pipeline Network, Pumping Stations.

The construction of the pipeline network, pumping stations, etc causes geophysiological damage. When trenches are dug to lay new pipelines along urban streets many of the roots of nearby Trees are cut thereby damaging and often killing the Trees.

3.1.3.6: The Maintenance of the Pipeline Network.

Pipeline maintenance depots destroy the land's Photosynthetic capacity.

3.1.3.7: Transportation.

The transportation of the ores to processing industries; the transportation of processed materials to manufacturing industries; the transportation of the manufactured equipment, pipes, to pipeline sites, etc, cause geophysiological damage.

3.1.3.8: Leakages/Accidents.

The leakage of oil suffocates the Earth's life support system.

3.1.4: The Implications for Alternative Energy.

For the scale of the pipeline network that might have to be built for the transmission of hydrogen see chapter five.

3.1.4.1: The Geophysiological Damage Caused by the Hot Water Network.

The geophysiological damage caused by the generation of hot water by alternative energies was discussed in chapter two. The geophysiological damage caused by the distribution of hot water from alternative power plants to domestic properties would include the construction of a pipeline network and the installation of central heating systems, pumps, radiators, etc in each home.

3.1.4.2: The Geophysiological Damage Caused by Biogas/Bioliquids Pipeline Networks.

Leaks from pipelines carrying biogas/bioliquids also cause greenhouse pollution and geophysiological damage.

3.1.4.3: The Centralizing Tendencies of Pipeline Networks.

The larger the scale of biofuel production, the greater the likelihood that biofuels will be distributed through the pipeline network. Whilst biogas can be produced in a highly decentralized way, it is much more difficult to do this for bioliquids. The production of bioliquids tends to require a more centralized approach. Once pipelines have been laid it becomes cheaper to transport biofuels which tends to undermine more decentralized forms of production. Although biogas could be produced in a far more decentralized way than is currently the case for natural gas whether this would mean more or less leaks is not known.

For some greens a part of the attraction of alternative energy is that it could be produced locally rather than by a massive, capital intensive energy production system. The more dependent people are upon one or other of the national pipeline networks, the more centralized the system becomes. It is only when people produce their own alternative forms of energy that they could be independent of national pipeline networks - although whether this would be better or worse for the environment is far from clear.

TWO: THE GLOBAL ELECTRICITY GRID.

The creation of alternative electricity is different for each type of alternative energy. Some alternative sources of energy generate electricity which can be fed virtually directly into the electrical grid system; other alternative energies are burnt in alternative power stations which then feed electricity into the electrical grid; and, finally, a third set of alternative energies need to be processed before being burnt in power stations to produce electricity. However, this section is concerned solely with the geophysiological damage caused by the distribution of alternative electricity.

This section explores the geophysiological damage caused by the distribution of conventional electricity in order to give an idea of the types, and scale, of damage which could occur if alternative electricity becomes more popular. The more popular that alternative electricity becomes the more responsibility it will have to take for the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of electricity. [30]

3.2.1: The Nature of the Electricity Grid.

3.2.1.1: The Components of the Electricity Industry.

The electricity industry consists primarily of power stations and the electrical grid. The electricity grid requires large numbers of pylons, electricity sub-stations and massive lengths of cabling. Electricity from power stations is linked to hundreds of millions of homes necessitating electricity meters. The electricity industry is a high tech industry having to deal with everything from the running of nuclear power stations to the precise measurement of the electricity being used concurrently by millions of consumers. The electricity industry thus has links with the mining, processing, manufacturing, construction, transport, industries etc. The industrial matrix of the electricity industry is therefore considerable and the geophysiological damage these industries cause should all be measured and included as part of the damage caused by the electricity industry.

3.2.1.2: The Scale of the Electricity Grid.

Most countries in the over-industrialized world are now covered by an electric blanket - the electricity grid. In some cases the electrical grid in one country is linked to that in another country and electricity is exported just like any other commodity. There is an electrical link between france and britain - the french export some of their surplus nuclear powered electricity; between canada and america; and between america and mexico. The global electricity industry is massive, .. "the $800-billion annual global market for grid-connected power. .. the world's electric utilities install 70,000 megawatts of generating capacity each year." [31]

3.2.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Electricity Grid.

3.2.2.1: Mining.

The mining of the raw materials needed for the manufacture of electricity pylons, electric cables, electricity sub stations, electricity meters, plugs, etc. all cause pollution

3.2.2.2: Processing.

The processing of ores for the electrical grid causes pollution.

3.2.2.3: Chemical Industry.

The chemical industry produces the plastic for the electricity industry.

3.2.2.4: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of equipment for the electrical grid causes pollution.

3.2.2.5: Construction.

The construction of electricity sub stations causes pollution.

3.2.2.6: Disposal

The disposal of electricity pylons, electric cables, electricity sub stations etc. all cause pollution

3.2.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Electricity Grid.

3.2.3.1: Mining.

The mining of the raw materials needed for the manufacture of the electricity grid causes geophysiological destruction.

3.2.3.2: Processing.

The processing of ores for the electrical grid causes geophysiological destruction.

3.2.3.3: Chemical Industry.

The factories manufacturing chemicals and plastics for the electricity grid destroys the Earth's life support system.

3.2.3.4: Manufacturing.

The factories manufacturing equipment for the electricity grid destroys the Earth's life support system.

3.2.2.5: Construction.

Electricity sub stations suffocate the land and boosts geophysiological destruction.

3.2.3.6: Disposal

The disposal of electricity grid equipment in landfill sites helps to devastate the Earth's life support system.

3.2.4: The Implications for Alternative Electricity.

3.2.4.1: Centralized Electricity Generation causes Extensive Geophysiological Damage through the Transmission of Electricity.

The capabilities of alternative energies for generating electricity are very broad in comparison to fossil fuels which tend to be used in a highly centralized power stations. Alternative forms of energy are capable of providing highly decentralized forms of energy e.g. solar roof panels, back-garden wind mills. This avoids the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of electricity. But alternative energy is just as capable as conventional energy in generating electricity in a highly centralized fashion. The construction and maintenance of electricity grids releases greenhouse gases and causes geophysiological destruction. It can be suggested that the greater the centralization of alternative electricity production, the greater the scale of the transmission of electricity, the greater the damage to the Earth's geophysiology, the greater the destabilization of the climate.

There are two major factors involved in the generation of alternative electricity which have considerable implications for the scale of the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of alternative electricity.

3.2.4.2: The Scale of the Global Electricity Grid for Alternative Electricity.

The first major factor influencing the scale of the electricity grid for alternative electricity is the divorce between the centres of production and the centres of consumption. A number of alternative energies can generate electricity only in particular areas some of which are huge distances from urban areas where electricity is needed. Unfortunately, in the over-industrialized world, the distance between alternative electrical producers and electricity consumers is not an obstacle to the transmission of electricity. The economic costs would not be so prohibitive as to prevent the construction of a transmission system with all the geophysiological damage it would cause.

3.2.4.2.1: Wind Generated Electricity.

The windiest areas in many countries tend to be in mountainous areas well away from major urban areas, "One constraint to reliance on wind power is the distances that separate some of the world's large wind resources from major population and industrial centers. This problem is seen clearly in the united states were nearly 90% of the country's wind resource is in the great plains, more than 1,000 kilometres from chicago and 2,000 kilometres from new york or los angeles. The economics of remote wind power also appear favourable. A 2,000 kilometre, 2,000 megawatt transmission line would cost roughly $1.5 billion, which would add only about a penny per kilowatt hour to the cost of wind energy." [32]

3.2.4.2.2: Solar Generated Electricity.

It has been calculated that there is little point in harnessing solar energy in europe. It would be better to harness solar energy in the tropics and then export it to europe via the electricity grid .. "to provide 24 million kwh of electrical energy per day in europe would require collection of 685 million kwh in the form of solar energy. In a region averaging 6 kwh/m²/day this would require 114 million square meters of solar collectors. More promising might be the generation of electricity at low latitudes and its transmission via very long high voltage cables, requiring only storage to supply night time demand." [33]

In the case of both wind and solar energy, electricity generation would require a massive extension of the electricity grid.

3.2.4.3: Green Demands for a Global Electricity Grid.

Some greens advocate a global electric blanket to redistribute alternative energy around the world, "Since most power demand comes during the day, generating stations run fiercely in the light hours and idle at night .. If there were a worldwide power grid, global energy production capacity could drop dramatically, because when power plants were in night time on their continents, they could be making juice for other continents." [34]

3.2.4.4: The Need for Cogeneration of Alternative Electricity.

The second major factor influencing the scale of the electricity grid is that alternative energies are inconsistent producers of electricity. Because alternative energies depend on the elements, on the one hand they can produce huge amount of electricity when it is not needed and, on the other hand, they often can't produce electricity when it is needed. The success of alternative energies is ultimately going to depend on co-generation - the ability to generate electricity which can be stored ready to meet demand. There are two possible candidates for this role: fuel cells or the generation of hydrogen. Since fuel cells also run on hydrogen, the role played by hydrogen as a co-generator will be crucial. The use of hydrogen as a co-generator with other alternative forms of energy would invariably require a global gas network which could cause considerable geophysiological damage.

It was pointed out above that solar/wind pharms might be located thousands of miles from where the electricity they produce could be consumed. Under these circumstances, the energy producers face a dilemma. Would it be better to convert the electricity into hydrogen and distribute hydrogen rather than electricity?

3.2.4.5: The Contradictory Tendencies of Alternative Electricity.

Alternative energies have a contradictory impact on electrical grid systems. The exploitation of the decentralized forms of alternative energy could result in the abandonment of electrical grids whilst the exploitation of the centralized forms of alternative energy necessitate a considerable extension of the grid system. In some places around the world, electrical pylons emanating from massive solar/wind pharms could be removed but, in other places, the countryside could become littered with them. Alternative energies don't seem to generate pressures in one direction or another - the abandonment or extension of the electricity grid. However, they do necessitate a global gas pipeline network. Whilst alternative energies can do without a global electricity grid, they can't do without a global gas pipeline network. Without a global gas network, alternative energies would never be able to exploit the huge quantities of electricity they can produce when it is not needed for immediate consumption.

THREE: THE GLOBAL ROAD NETWORK AND THE GLOBAL TRANSPORT INDUSTRY.

3.3.1: The Reliance of Alternative Energy on the Road Network and the Transport Industry.

Most alternative energies could be distributed through the global pipeline system or through the electricity grid, but some would have to be transported by vehicles using the global road network. Even if all possible measures were taken to maximize the use of the global pipeline network and electricity grids there would always be a significant amount of alternative energy that would have to be transported via lorries for the simple reason that it is not possible to provide a pipeline network for every type of fuel. In some cases it may even be cheaper and quicker to transport alternative fuels by road rather than through pipelines. To the extent that alternative energies have to be transported by road then they have to take a share of the geophysiological damage caused by the global road construction industry and the global transport industry.

The general rule of thumb for alternative energies is that the solid forms of green energy will tend to be used in close proximity to their origins whilst the lighter green fuels tend to be transported longer distances (the conversion of Wood into charcoal makes it easier to transport). Because of the prevalence of the oil and gas pipeline systems, bioliquids and biogases are even more likely to be transported over longer distances than solid fuels which tend to be used closer to the point of production. The more extended the journey from production to consumption the greater the pollution and geophysiological damage.

3.3.2: Transport Industries.

The two main forms of transport for alternative energies would be heavy goods vehicles and supertankers. As alternative energy becomes increasingly popular it would have to take a share of the geophysiological damage caused by the heavy goods vehicle, and the shipbuilding, industries.

3.3.2.1: The Heavy Goods Vehicle Industry.

Alternative energy may require lorries to transport biofuels.

3.3.2.1.1: The Components of the Road Construction Industry.

The road industry is heavily reliant upon the quarrying industry to provide it with the rocks and rubble for road building; the mining industry to provide it with the metals need for the manufacture of fuel tankers, fuel pumps, fuel stations, fuel depots, fuel containers, lamp-posts, gas/oil cans/cylinders; the construction industry to build the roads; the oil industry to provide the oil to run the vehicles and cover roads with tarmac, etc.

3.3.2.1.2: A Geophysiological Analysis of the Road Construction Industry.

No geophysiological analysis of the road industry is outlined here because it has been described elsewhere. [35]

3.3.2.2: The Shipbuilding Industry.

Alternative energy may require supertankers, and thus the global shipping industry, to transport biofuels.