PART FOUR: THE GEOPHYSIOLOGICAL DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE CONSUMPTION OF GREEN ENERGY.

Having explored the geophysiological damage caused by the sources, conversion, and transmission, of alternative energy, this chapter looks at the damage caused by the consumption of alternative energy. The next chapter examines the ultimate alternative energy, hydrogen, before attempting to assess the overall impact of alternative energy on the Earth's life support system, its Photosynthetic capacity.

4.1: Background.

This chapter looks at the geophysiological damage caused by the consumption of alternative energy. It might be assumed that the way in which alternative energy is consumed wouldn't make any difference to the Earth's life support system and thus the stability of the climate. What does it matter how the energy is consumed when all uses release the same amount of greenhouse pollution? There is a minor difference in so much as the consumption of some fuels is more efficient than others. The more efficient the utilization of energy, the smaller the greenhouse emissions. But there is also a major factor involved which makes the consumption of energy critical as far as the destruction of the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity is concerned. Even where two different machines/equipment consume alternative energy at the same energy efficiency, these usages can result in different degrees of geophysiological damage. For example, an alternative powered chainsaw could cause considerable damage to the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity whereas an alternative powered lawnmower would cause far less damage. As far as geophysiological damage is concerned, this suggests that the uses to which the energy is put is as important as what energy is being used. The way in which alternative energy is consumed does have an impact on the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity - perhaps the reason this hasn't raised much interest in the green movement is because greens aren't in the slightest bit interested in the Earth's life support system

4.2: The Consumption of Solid Fuels.

4.2.1: Wood from Tree Plantations.

The wood obtained from Tree plantations can be used to generate energy e.g. wood being burnt in domestic stoves, in power stations, the conversion of wood to charcoal, or biofuels, etc. The greenhouse emissions from the consumption of this energy is similar but the way in which this energy is used can have different impacts on the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

4.3: The Consumption of Biogas.

4.3.1: Biogas Users.

There is a paucity of information about the uses of biogas which means it isn't possible to compare their different impacts on the Earth's life sustaining processes. At the moment, in the over-industrialized world, by far the most prominent user of biogas is the car industry. However, given the absence of information about its use, the damage caused by natural gas will be used as the model for the damage that could be caused by the use of biogas.

4.3.2: Biogas Powered Cars.

4.3.2.1: The Spread of Biogas Powered Cars.

There are already a small number of natural gas vehicles and it would be easy for biogas to meet some of this demand. The most advanced natural gas powered cars are by no means as rustic as electric cars. The 'profile' is a gas fired, high-tech, futuristic so-called green car. Although it's a new concept in car engineering it's hardly a new concept in motoring - if anything it's worse than what exists already, "A new 150mph high performance car from Ford runs on natural gas as well as unleaded fuel. The Profile's 240 horsepower all-aluminium, 24 valve, 2.5 litre V6 engine is fuel injected and supercharged, has achieved an average top speed of 150mph during testing. The Profile's sunroof incorporates a solar panel which provides up to 30 watts of continuous power on a sunny day."

4.3.2.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Biogas Cars.

It is generally argued that gas powered cars release less pollution than petrol driven cars, "The International Gas Union .. found that gas produces up to 90% less nitrogen oxides (NOx) than coal or oil. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) also produces less ozone pollution, less carbon monoxide and less methane. CNG was found to produce 80-90% less greenhouse gases when used in vehicles." [1] According to brutish gas, natural gas vehicles are .. "environmentally friendly because they can reduce carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emissions up to 70% and reduce emissions of sulphur and particulates to almost zero .."[2] ; "The potential for CO₂ reduction is said to be in the region of 19% when CNG is derived from natural gas and 100% when it is derived from biomass. The latter however gives rise to the release of methane, another potent gas." [3]

4.3.2.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Biogas Cars.

The use of biogas to provide fuel for cars is one of the more damaging uses to which biogas could be put. Biogas cars would require an infrastructure to keep them on the roads - from biogas stations to biogas garages, biogas retailing outlets, etc.

4.3.2.4: Conclusions.

The greater the proportion of biogas cars to the total number of cars on the roads, the greater the responsibility alternative energy would have to accept for the geophysiological destruction caused by the road/car industry.

4.4: The Consumption of Bioliquid Fuels.

4.4.1: General Users.

Bioliquids could be used in all the ways that oil is currently used i.e. running cars, heating homes, etc. Once again, there is a paucity of information about bioliquid useages. Similarly, by far the most prominent user of bioliquids at the moment is the car industry.

4.4.2: Ethanol Fuelled Cars.

4.4.2.1: The Spread of Ethanol Powered Cars.

Around the world there are already a large number of cars running on ethanol or ethanol mixed fuels. By far the largest number of ethanol fuelled cars are to be found in brazil, "Brazil has 8 million cars running on a mixture of petrol and ethyl alcohol." [4] Brazil's proalcohol programme .. "has become the world's biggest and most expensive experiment in alternative automotive fuels. Production rocketed from 500 litres in 1976 to 12.4 billion litres in 1988." [5] ; "Brazil has the world's largest alcohol fuels program, with about 72 million barrels of ethanol derived from sugarcane annually."[6]

In the mid 1970s, the brazilian government was faced by the increasing costs of importing oil so it decided to establish an ethanol industry to supply fuel for domestic cars. One commentator provides a rosy view of brazil's ethanol industry - less pollution, no contribution to global warming, and a massive saving in oil imports, "The world's biggest experiment in alternative fuel, Proalcohol, was set up in 1975 as a response to the oil crisis in the 1970s, and now provides ethanol from sugar cane to power around one-third of Brazil's 12 million cars. (But) world oil prices have fallen so far as to make ethanol too expensive without government subsidies. Roughly $9 billion was invested in increasing cane production and building around 600 distilleries. Car adaptions to run on ethanol cost $500 per car. Over the last ten years, Proalcohol saved the country an estimated $20 billion in oil imports." [7]

4.4.2.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Ethanol Cars.

It has been argued that cars running on ethanol produce far less pollutants than fossil fuels and, even better, do not contribute to the greenhouse effect, "The potential for reducing CO₂ emissions by switching to biofuels is considerable."[8] ; "It (ethanol) produces fewer pollutants and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. A motor running a car on ethanol produces 20-30% less Carbon monoxide and insignificant levels of sulphur; the two fuels generate roughly equal amounts of hydrocarbons (from unburned fuels) but unburned ethanol is non reactive and so does not contribute to the formation of photochemical smogs. Ethanol run cars generated 15% less nitrogen oxides. The production of CO₂ by ethanol-run vehicles is balanced by absorption in new cane. Gasohol cars run on 78% petrol-22% ethanol." [9] ; "Cars burning alcohol produce 57% less carbon monoxide, 74% fewer hydrocarbons and 13% less nitrogen oxides than engines fired by fossil fuels."[10]

Other commentators disagree. They argue the release of carbon dioxide is higher in ethanol fuelled cars, "From an emissions point of view, both ethanol and methanol (fuelled cars) produce fewer of the toxins associated with petrol engines, although carbon dioxide levels are often higher and formaldehydes are much higher than with petrol. Furthermore, fuel efficiency is reduced." [11] There are two reasons for higher CO₂ emissions. Firstly, the combustion of ethanol releases more Carbon dioxide than petrol. Secondly, the fuel efficiency of ethanol is lower than that of oil, "Since these cars consume 30-40% more fuel than gasoline-burning engines .."[12]

The reason that commentators argue that ethanol has no impact on the greenhouse effect despite releasing more Carbon dioxide than petrol is because it derives from Phytomass. This proposition is explored in the next chapter.

4.4.2.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Ethanol Cars.

The use of ethanol to provide fuel for cars is one of the more damaging uses to which biogas could be put because of the need for the road/car infrastructure.

4.4.3: Methanol Fuelled Cars.

Methanol is a Wood alcohol.

4.4.3.1: The Spread of Methanol Powered Cars.

This development of this bioliquid seems far less significant than the previous two forms of alternative energy. Brazil is also experimenting with methanol.

4.4.3.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Methanol Cars.

The use of methanol releases greenhouse gases .. "the quest for petroleum alternatives has focused largely on "clean" fuels such as methanol, made from coal or natural gas, and alcohol substitutes distilled from corn and other crops. But methanol contributes to ozone formation and, if derived from coal, to climate change by emitting twice as much carbon dioxide per unit of energy as gasoline does." [13] ; "Although alcohol fuels produce CO₂ they produce substantially fewer nitrogen oxides than gasoline does." [14]

4.4.3.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Methanol Cars.

The same as for biogas, and ethanol, cars

4.4.3.4: The Anthropogenic Impact of Methanol.

The main anthropogenic health problem caused by methanol is its carcinogenic emissions .. "methanol suffers the handicap of causing its own special exhaust emissions, most notably formaldehyde which not only smells vile but is high on the suspect list of carcinogens." [15]

4.4.4: Biodiesel Fuelled Cars.

Biodiesel derives from esters found in oilseeds or vegetable oils.

4.4.4.1: The Spread of Bio-diesel Fuelled Cars.

A small number of cars are now being powered by biodiesel, "Germany's fleet of diesel powered mercedes taxis are about to be converted to run on canola oil.." [16]

4.4.4.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Biodiesel Cars.

Rapeseed oil .. "can be used as a heating oil, but rape methyl ester, or rme, is now a renewable replacement for diesel. Rme offers environmental benefit; it emits fewer sooty particles than ordinary diesel and no sulphur dioxide (which can cause acid rain)."[17]

4.4.4.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Biodiesel Cars.

Same as for biogas, ethanol and methanol cars.

In germany, "Biodiesel, the alternative fuel derived from rape seed .. could displace as much as 400,000 tonnes of fossil fuel a year in Germany - equivalent to 640,000 tonnes of CO₂ - which is 0.5-0.7% of the country's total emissions .. and would cost 1.1 billion DM (£400million). There is no indication of the scale of the rapeseed crop which absorbs this amount of atmospheric Carbon.

4.4.5: The Spread of Bioliquids as Petrol/Diesel Additives.

MTBE.

Although it is rarely appreciated, bioliquids are commonly used in america. This is because some bioliquids are marketed as petrol additives designed to reduce hydro-Carbon emissions causing smog. So-called oxygenated fuels consist of diesel topped up with methyl tertiary butyl ether, a biodiesel, to boost fuel efficiency thereby reducing certain types of pollution (only of course to create other types of pollution), "One way to reduce pollutants (from car exhausts) is to add 10-15% of oxygenated compounds to the fuel blend. The additional oxygen encourages the fuel to burn more cleanly .. The oxygenated compounds include alcohols (produced from US grain) and esters such as methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), the most widely used oxygenate. It is already added in small quantities to unleaded fuel as an octane enhancer. The proponents of oxygenated fuel - which not unsurprisingly include Arco, the American company that makes most of the world's MTBE - point out that the product is relatively cheap to produce, can be added to leaded and unleaded petrol, does not require modified petrol pumps, and would only put half a penny on the price of a gallon of fuel. Arco has recently launched a campaign outlining the benefits of oxygenated fuel in Britain. The initiative has the backing of .. Dr Simon Wolff. This is not music to the ears of the large petroleum companies .. who have already invested heavily in producing unleaded petrol with enhanced levels of aromatics .. According to Wolfgang Luding of Europia, the European Petroleum Industry association, MTBE has its disadvantages: "MTBE has a positive effect in winter when there is a carbon monoxide problem but in the summer it creates high levels of formaldehyde, which is a very aggressive ozone precursor."" [18]

Tame.

"Finland's Neste .. produces tertiary amyl methyl ether (tame) and heavier ethers - all oxygen rich gasoline components used in the manufacture of low emission fuels. Tame is similar in effect to mtbe (methyl tert-butyl ether) which is the most commonly used key component in low emissions gasoline manufacture since the mid 1980s."[19]

4.5: The Consumption of Batteries & Fuels Cells.

There is no information for this section. For the use of batteries used to drive cars see following. For the use of fuel cells see next chapter.

4.6: The Consumption of Electricity.

4.6.1: The Consumption of Hydro-Electricity.

One of the biggest consumers of hydro-electricity which plays a major role in determining the location of dams is the processing industry, primarily the smelting of aluminium, "The main economic force behind large-dam construction in the world's wildernesses is the metals industry, and especially aluminium smelting. The aluminium companies need huge amounts of cheap power and will go anywhere to obtain it."[20] ; "Besides Hoover and Grand Coulee, early aluminium smelters were built near sources of hydropower at the Niagara Falls, in Norway and Tasmania, in the French and Swiss Alps and in the Scottish highlands."[21] Although the hep industry is separate from the processing industry it has to take some of the responsibility for the huge amounts of pollution generated by the processing industry.

4.6.2: The Consumption of Solar Electricity.

Alternative electricity can be used in the same way as fossil fuelled electricity. However, alternative electricity has more uses than fossil fuelled electricity e.g. solar powered pocket calculators, etc.

4.6.3: Electric Cars.

4.6.3.1: The Spread of Bio-electric Cars.

A number of car manufacturers are developing battery powered cars, "Chrysler, Ford and General Motors have joined forces and will spend $130 million on research co-ordinated by their Advanced Battery Consortium during the next 4 years. The companies were shocked into action in 1990 when California passed a law stating that 2% of new cars sold in the state must be emission free by 1998."[22] The most advanced models today can do 100mph but, after a 60 mile journey, the battery needs recharging - typically taking two to three hours. "The French government is .. installing recharging terminals in every major city by 1995 ... Oslo, Norway .. is currently planning 10,000 electric cars on the roads of Norway by 2000 and the authorities are preparing for unlimited parking in the country's city centres. In addition the government is considering dropping duties and taxes on electric vehicles, so the transition from pollution to 'pollution free' motoring will be painless!" [23]

4.6.3.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Bio-electric Cars.

The different uses of alternative energy have different impacts on the Earth's life support system. This can be seen in terms of bioelectric cars. The manufacture of bioelectric cars is far less complex than other types of car so this would undoubtedly result in a reduction of greenhouse gases and geophysiological damage. David morris, who believes bioelectric cars are one of the best prospects for an environmentally cleaner future, points out, "Astonishingly, even now electric vehicles are cheaper to own than gas vehicles. EVs do cost more, and their battery packs must be replaced every 3-4 years. But their fuel costs less than half that of gas powered cars. And, aside from checking battery water levels once a month, EVs need no maintenance. Gas engines have 200 moving parts. Electric motors have one. EVs do not need pollution control devices, cooling systems, mufflers, spark plugs or fuel pumps."[24] ; "With fewer moving parts, ZEVs (zero emission vehicles) will reduce the need to dispose of air and oil filters, mufflers, catalytic converters, waste oil and hoses and belts." [25] Unfortunately he gets a little carried away in his electric buggy, "Electric cars can eliminate the pollution costs of vehicles."[26]

Although bioelectric cars could bring about a dramatic reduction in greenhouse gas emissions this is not necessarily the case. Electric cars would not reduce emissions if they are fuelled by electricity derived from fossil fuels, "Running on electricity from coal plants, electric cars would actually worsen greenhouse gas emissions. Electric vehicles can therefore offer reduced greenhouse gas emissions, but only if the electricity is provided primarily by non-fossil sources or natural gas."[27] However, the use of natural gas to produce electricity for electric cars is not a long term solution since it is a finite resource.[28] If electricity .. "comes from a coal-fired power plant, an electric car actually produces more emissions than a gasoline-powered car."[29]

4.6.4: Recharging Batteries.

One of the possible uses of alternative electricity is recharging batteries. This would considerably reduce the pollution and geophysiological damage entailed by the production of batteries.

4.6.5: The Manufacture of Hydrogen.

Alternative electricity could be used to manufacture of hydrogen - see next chapter.

4.6.6: Conclusions

The consumption of alternative energy has a considerable impact on the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity and thus on the stability of the Earth's climate. Firstly, the different uses of alternative energy bring about different levels of geophysiological destruction. It seems that, so far, many alternative energies are being used to provide power for cars which will cause the maximum amount of geophysiological damage given the huge infrastructure required to keep cars on the roads. There is no factor which compels alternative energy to be used in an environmentally friendly way. It is ironic that the most environmentally friendly fuels can be used in the most geophysiologically destructive ways.

Secondly, alternative energy can provide power for a wider range of commodities than conventional energy. This is transparent mainly with solar energy which can generate power for a whole range of new commodities e.g. solar pocket calculators. Alternative energy provides even more opportunities for the production of commodities which will thereby boost geophysiological destruction.

Thirdly, alternative energy promotes developments in areas which cannot be reached by the current power supply systems.

Fourthly, the greater the proportion of energy met from alternative sources, the more responsibility alternative energy has to take for the manufacture of the commodities using this energy.

Fifthly, the greater the proportion of energy met from alternative sources, the more responsibility alternative energy has to take for the geophysiological damage caused not merely energy transmission system whether the gas pipeline system, the oil pipeline system, the electricity grid, etc.