PART TWO: THE GEOPHYSIOLOGICAL DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE CONVERSION OF GREEN ENERGY.

The previous chapter explored the geophysiological damage caused by the sources of green energy. This chapter explores the geophysiological damage caused by the conversion of these sources of energy into useable forms of energy. To outline all the conversion processes for every source of energy would require an encyclopaedia so this chapter focuses on the conversion processes common to several sources of energy.

2.1: The Conversion of Green Energy to Heat (Open Fires/Stoves/Furnaces).

2.1.1: The Sources of Energy for Heat.

The alternative sources of energy which can be used to generate heat are Phytomass, biomass, inorganic waste and bacteria. The conversion process to turn them into a useable form of energy will often be minimal. The heat generated is used for domestic consumption, either cooking or warming the home, or for use in factories.

2.1.2: The Preparation of Green Sources for Combustion.

2.1.2.1: Using Wood as a Solid Fuel.

After the harvesting of Tree plantations, wood is taken to saw mills to be broken down into small logs/chippings. The chippings are sometimes left to dry to ensure they burn more easily. They are then transported to consumers or district heating schemes to be burnt for hot water, "The overall process involves several stages - growing over 2-3 years, cutting and converting to wood chip, storage and drying, transport to a power plant for combustion." [1]

2.1.2.2: Using Biomass as a Solid Fuel.

After the collection of Animal/ooman manure it is dried to make the fuel lighter to transport and easier to burn. The fuel is then transported to consumers/district heating/industrial estates to be burnt.

2.1.2.3: Using Inorganic materials as a Solid Fuel.

After the collection of inorganic waste it is crushed and shredded to make it easier to burn. The fuel is then transported to an incinerator.

2.1.3: Ways of Generating Heat.

There are many ways of using alternative sources of energy to generate heat. The sources of energy can be burnt in an open fire to provide heat or to cook food; in a stove to cook food; or in a furnace to heat a factory.

2.1.3.1: Open Fires.

Once a fuel has been collected, it may have to be transported to energy users for burning in an open fire or a stove/furnace/incinerator. If the transportation of the fuel requires a vehicle this involves the release of Carbon emissions. If an open fire is used to burn the fuel this releases more Carbon emissions but causes little other geophysiological damage. If stoves are used the geophysiological damage caused by stove makers would need to be included. From an anthropogenic perspective, the pollution released by burning fuels in open fires is likely to cause considerable damage to human health. The burning of the sources of energy creates pollution and the manufacture of stoves/furnaces/incinerators creates geophysiological damage.

2.1.3.2: Stoves.

The same applies as above

2.1.3.3: Furnaces.

Furnaces tend to be used to warm factories. Much of the pollution generated can be directed away from the place it is being used and dumped into the atmosphere.

2.1.3.4: Manure Composting.

Biomass composting systems can be located in the cellar of a house, and the warmth generated can be enough to heat the home.

2.1.4: The Conversion of Wood to Charcoal.

One of the most widespread sources of green energy generating heat is charcoal. The conversion of Wood to charcoal requires no machinery so there is little geophysiological devastation. [2] However, it does cause a colossal degree of atmospheric pollution. It could be argued the release of greenhouse gases would occur anyway if wood was burnt in people's homes instead of charcoal. Indeed it could be argued that it is geophysiologically better to create charcoal since the transportation of charcoal to consumers releases less greenhouse gases than the transportation of wood. In addition, it is far healthier for consumers to burn charcoal than the other sources of energy mentioned above.

2.2: The Conversion of Green Energy to Hot Water (Geothermal and Incinerators).

This section concerns the geophysiological damage caused by the conversion of green sources of energy into hot water for heating. The generation of hot water can be carried out in individual households, district heating schemes, or industrial estates. The sources of green energy have to be collected, treated, converted, and then transported either to individual consumers/district heating schemes/industrial estates where they are burnt in a hot water incinerator. The geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of hot water from domestic/district/industrial heating schemes to consumers is discussed in part three. The conversion of green energy sources into hot water for the generation of electricity will be explored in the next section.

2.2.1: Types of Hot Water Generators.

There are two major sources of alternative energy for hot water - geothermal energy and incinerators.

2.2.1.1: Geothermal Energy.

Some geothermal energy projects use the heat from underground rocks to generate hot water in district heating systems whilst others generate electricity - for the geophysiological damage caused by the latter see the next section.

2.2.1.2: Incinerators.

Whilst stoves/furnaces produce heat to warm homes/buildings, incinerators are a little more complex since they convert heat into hot water. The following sections looking at the geophysiological damage caused by the generation of hot water apply mainly to incinerators.

2.2.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Creation of Hot Water.

The geophysiological damage caused by the burning of green energies for the generation of hot water is similar to that described for the generation of heat. The primary difference is the need for an incinerator to heat water. The hot water is then pumped around a home or to several homes in a district heating system. This section is not concerned with the geophysiological damage caused by the distribution of hot water because this will be explored in the next chapter.

2.2.2.1: Saw Mills.

The energy used by the machines in the saw mills to create wood chippings releases atmospheric pollution.

2.2.2.2: Drying out Process.

The drying of Phytomass or Biomass (Animal/ooman manure) releases atmospheric pollution.

2.2.2.3: Mining/Quarrying.

The mining of the ores needed to manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, the supply of water, hot water pumps, hot water incinerators, etc, and the quarrying for the minerals needed for the construction of district heating plants, etc, releases greenhouse gases.

2.2.2.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores/minerals needed for the manufacture/construction of hot water incinerators releases atmospheric pollution.

2.2.2.5: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of vehicles, saw mills, hot water incinerators, etc, and manufacture of the items needed for the construction of district heating plants, releases greenhouse gases.

2.2.2.6: Site Clearance.

The clearance of a site for a district heating plant may involve deforestation and the release of atmospheric pollution.

2.2.2.7: Construction of the District Heating Plant.

The construction of the district heating plant, and any associated buildings, releases greenhouse gases.

2.2.2.8: The Pollution Released by Incineration.

The incineration of green fuels to produce hot water releases greenhouse gases. Waste incinerators often have to function at very high temperatures to burn material (especially inorganic material) and this requires substantial quantities of fuels which boosts the release of atmospheric pollutants. Incinerators emit considerable levels of atmospheric pollution, some of it extremely toxic. It has been estimated that to produce 261mw of electricity 3 million tonnes of inorganic matter will have to be incinerated releasing 4,600 tonnes of air pollution. [3] However, it has been argued that, "Wood contains virtually no sulphur and is thus much less dangerous to the environment in regard to acid rain." [4]

2.2.2.9: Transportation.

The transportation of ores to the processors; the transportation of the processed materials to the manufacturers, the transportation of the manufactured machines/equipment to the incineration site - all release atmospheric pollution.

The transportation of the source of energy to the saw mill; the transportation of the solid fuel to domestic/communal incinerators releases greenhouse gases. The bigger the district heating system, the further the fuels have to be transported, the greater the pollution.

2.2.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Creation of Hot Water.

2.2.3.1: The Suffocation of the Land by Saw Mills.

Saw mills suffocate the Photosynthetic capacity of the sites on which they are constructed.

2.2.3.2: The Suffocation of the Land by the Drying out Process.

The land on which organic matter, manure, etc, is dried suffers geophysiological destruction.

2.2.3.3: Mining.

The mining of the ores needed to manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, the supply of water, hot water pumps, hot water incinerators, etc, and the quarrying for the minerals needed for the construction of district heating plants, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

2.2.3.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores/minerals needed for the manufacture/construction of hot water incinerators causes geophysiological damage.

2.2.3.5: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of vehicles, saw mills, hot water incinerators, etc, and manufacture of the items needed for the construction of district heating plants, causes geophysiological damage.

2.2.3.6: The Suffocation of the Land by District Heating Plants.

Incinerators suffocate the land on which they are built thereby preventing them from playing any role in the Earth's life support system. This boosts global burning. (There is no geophysiological damage if hot water generators are installed in a domestic household - only district heating schemes and associated buildings destroy the land's Photosynthetic capacity).

2.2.3.7: Transportation.

The transportation of ores to the processors; the transportation of the processed materials to the manufacturers, the transportation of the manufactured machines/equipment to the incineration site - causes geophysiological damage.

The transportation of the source of energy to the saw mill; the transportation of the solid fuel to domestic/communal incinerators causes geophysiological damage.

2.2.3.8: Waste Disposal.

The material left over after incineration requires disposal. The temporary storage of this material will suffocate the land's Photosynthetic capacity. If this waste is dumped in landfill sites it will have to take a share of the responsibility for the destruction of the land's Photosynthetic capacity. It has been estimated that to produce 261mw of electricity 3 million tonnes of inorganic matter will have to be incinerated creating 570,000 tonnes of toxic ashes. [5]

2.2.4: Conclusions.

The conversion process for the generation of hot water is a little more complex than is the case for the conversion of green sources of energy to heat. Overall, the geophysiological damage is small.

2.3: The Conversion of Green Energy to Biogas.

2.3.1: Types of Hot Water Generators (Landfill Biogas Plants/Biogas Reactors).

It is possible to generate biogas either from landfill dumps or from bioreactors. The creation of biogas can be done either on the small (domestic) scale, or on the large scale. It has already been outlined how inorganic material has to be collected, treated and transported to landfill biogas plants - for domestic biogas reactors little, or no, transport is used. Once the biogas has been created it might need to be refined and thereafter stored in cylinders ready for use.

2.3.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Creation of Biogas.

2.3.2.1: Mining.

The mining of the ores needed to manufacture biogas landfill plants, biogas reactors, gas cylinders, vehicles, etc, releases greenhouse gases. (As far as home made bioreactors are concerned there is unlikely to be much mining involved).

2.3.2.2: Processing.

The processing of the ores needed to create biogas reactors releases greenhouse gases.

2.3.2.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of biogas reactors, biogas landfill plants, gas cylinders, vehicles, etc, releases greenhouse gases.

2.3.2.4: Site Clearance.

The clearance of the land for biogas plants may involve deforestation and thus the release of greenhouse gases.

2.3.2.5: Construction of Biogas Plants.

The construction of biogas reactors, biogas landfill plants, releases greenhouse gases. (If biogas generation takes place on the domestic level there is little such construction and thus few emissions). The construction of landfill sites is more complex than just digging a hole in the ground, even though many old landfill sites are just that, "To contain the gas and the leachate, the landfill site is first lined with either hdpe sheets, 2 to 2.5 mm thick welded together, or clay layered to a depth of a metre or so. After filling and settlement the waste is capped with clay, topsoiled and grassed according to planning requirements. Both liquid and gas have to be collected and processed so a network of perforated pipes is laid on the floor of the pit to carry away leachate and, after capping, a separate network of vertical pipes is drilled in to collect gas.." [6]

Some of the leachate from old landfill sites is transported into new landfill sites to accelerate the decomposition process .. "recycled leachate is used to initiate the decomposition process in dry areas. [7]

2.3.2.6: Conversion Process.

The material used to produce biogas has to be kept above 37C. In cool parts of the world up to a third of the methane produced is used to keep the biogas plant warm. The conversion of green sources of energy to biogas often leads to leaks of greenhouse gases. (There are also leakages of biogas from land fill sites).

2.3.2.7: The Refining of Biogas.

The biogas collected from organic/inorganic landfill sites needs to be refined and purified before it can be used, "The first point to make about landfill gas is that, not surprisingly, it is not that clean a fuel. With a typical composition of 58% methane, 38% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen 1% oxygen and toxic trace constituents, it presents its own problems. It is released at low pressure, saturated with water, contains dust particles, may need cooling and, if mixed with too much oxygen, is explosive. It is also highly corrosive, needing high density polyethylene (hdpe) piping and, in the generator engines, chrome plated parts and gold plated injectors." [8]

2.3.2.8: Transportation.

The transportation of the green sources of energy (whether ooman or Animal manure or inorganic materials) to biogas reactors releases greenhouse gases. The more centralized the heating system, the further the fuels have to be transported, the greater the pollution. Once again, if biogas is generated and used domestically there are no such transport emissions.

2.3.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Creation of Biogas.

2.3.3.1: Mining.

The mining of the ores needed to create biogas reactors, gas cylinders, vehicles, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

2.3.3.2: Processing.

The processing of the ores needed to create biogas reactors, gas cylinders, vehicles, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

2.3.3.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of biogas reactors, gas cylinders, vehicles, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

2.3.3.4: Suffocation.

The construction of landfill sites, biogas plants, garbage vehicle depots, garbage storage depots, etc destroys the sites' Photosynthetic capacity. If the land had previously been Forested this would cause a dramatic reduction in the area's Photosynthetic capacity. The following quote suggests that a site of 60 acres is needed to produce 1mw of electricity, "Landfill gas comes from the decomposition of the 30million tonnes of largely domestic waste that goes to landfill each year. As an example of the amount of electricity that can come from landfill, 1mw is produced from a 60 acre site at witton near northwich in cheshire. Operator 3c waste expects to increase output to 2mw over the next few years .. " [9]

2.3.3.5: Waste.

The manufacture of biogas leaves behind waste ash. In the case of domestic bioreactors the ash is a valuable fertiliser which, when applied to the land, boosts soil fertility and thus increases the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity, moderating global burning. It is not known whether this is the case with the ash created by larger scale biogas reactors.

2.3.3.6: Transportation.

The generation of biogas also relies on roads which cause geophysiological damage.

2.4: The Conversion of Green Energy to Bioliquids.

2.4.1: Background.

2.4.1.1: The Types of Bioliquids.

The creation of bioliquids involves the most extensive conversion of alternative sources of energy. Bioliquids can be generated from the same sources as biogas i.e. Phytomass, biomass (ooman, and Animal, manure), and inorganic waste. The refining process creates three main liquid fuels - methanol, ethanol, and esters. [10]

Methanol.

Methanol is an alcohol which can be derived from Wood, "But trees, small woody plants, and cane plants contain sugars that can be processed into methanol. Such biomass raises the prospect of methanol becoming renewable." [11]

Ethanol.

Ethanol derives from sugar beets (sugar cane), maize (corn), cereals, and potatoes. This can be mixed with regular petrol. [12] "Fermenting starches and sugars produces ethanol, a petrol substitute .. [13]

Esters.

Esters derive from oilseed rape, "Another form of plant-based motor fuel is 'biodiesel' - essentially vegetable oil derived from a variety of energy crops." [14] This can be mixed with diesel fuel. "Rapeseed oil can be burned as diesel, either raw, after modification to the engine, or in ordinary diesel engine after estrification to rapeseed methly ester. [15]

2.4.1.2: The Preparation of Green Sources of Energy for Conversion into Bioliquids.

2.4.1.2.1: Wood.

After the harvesting of Trees, wood is taken to a saw mill to be broken down into chippings which can be burnt more easily to produce biofuels, "Methanol was once produced by heating wood chips, which is why it used to be called wood alcohol. Most unleaded petrol contains 5% methanol, or its derivative methyl tertiary butyl ether (mtbe)." [16] However, wood is also capable of being converted into virtually any of the products created through oil, "Trees ... furnish biomass for direct combustion to thermal energy or feedstocks for conversion into any of the same chemical products now extracted from crude petroleum, natural gas, or coal." [17]

2.4.1.2.2: Biomass.

Sewage needs to be dried before it is used to create bioliquids, "Sewage can also be turned directly into oil .. In this process, sewage sludge is made alkaline and then heated under pressure. This converts the organic material to crude oil, water and carbon dioxide." [18]

2.4.1.2.3: Inorganic Matter.

There is an enormous potential for obtaining oil from tyres, "Heated in the absence of oxygen, tyres produce vast quantities of oil, more than a gallon per tyre." [19] "The average tyre contains the equivalent of 2.5 gallons of oil - Burning tyres can result in dioxins, sulphur, and nitrogen dioxide." [20]

2.4.1.3: Bioliquids from Fossil Fuels.

Bioliquids can also be obtained from fossil fuels. Methanol can be derived from natural gas, "Methanol can also be produced from either natural gas (the least expensive source) or coal." [21] This source of bioliquids is of no interest in this work.

2.4.1.4: Bioliquids from Algae.

This section is included primarily as a footnote to be borne in mind since Algae is a source of energy which is still being developed, "There's a new fuel that can be grown, eats sewage and carbon dioxide, and is stuffed with hydrocarbons. It's a remarkable alga called Botryococcus braunii .. a green collection of cells that bulges with hydrocarbons, up to 86% of all its dry weight is oil. .. there is a growing suspicion that when its ancestors laid down their lives they made some of the world's great oil fields. To create your own oilfield, all you have to do is grow the alga, harvest it and burst it open. The first part is no sweat because it grows on treated sewage. The harvesting is okay because you grow it in tanks and then filter the algae off. The tough bit is extracting the oil because its trapped inside the cells. Scientists at the National Institute for Resources and Environment (have a cheap technique for doing this which) involves boiling the cells in a chemical brew which squeezes out three-quarters of the algalm oil. The oil can be upgraded into high octane fuel by old-fashioned refinery techniques. And because the alga is a photo-synthesizing plant it absorbs carbon dioxide. So burning algal oil would make little overall difference to carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere .." [22]

2.4.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Creation of Bioliquids.

2.4.2.1: Saw Mills.

The energy used by the machines in the saw mills to create wood chippings releases atmospheric pollution.

2.4.2.2: Drying out Process.

The drying of Phytomass or Biomass (Animal/ooman manure) releases atmospheric pollution.

2.4.2.3: Mining.

The mining of the ores needed to manufacture bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries, bioliquid containers, vehicles, etc releases greenhouse gases.

2.4.2.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores needed to create bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries, bioliquid containers, vehicles, etc releases greenhouse gases.

2.4.2.5: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of machines/equipment for bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries, bioliquid containers, vehicles, etc releases greenhouse gases.

2.4.2.6: Site Clearance.

The clearance of the land for biogas plants may involve deforestation and thus the release of greenhouse gases.

2.4.2.7: Construction.

The construction of communal/commercial bioliquid complexes releases greenhouse gases. If biogas generation takes place on the domestic level the construction emissions are far lower.

2.4.2.8: Transportation.

The transportation of the ores to processors, the transport of metals to manufacturers, and the transport of biolquid equipment to producers, all releases greenhouse gases. The transportation of the green sources of energy to the distilleries/incinerator releases greenhouse gases. The more centralized the heating system, the further the fuels have to be transported, the greater the pollution.

2.4.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Creation of Bioliquids.

2.4.3.1: The Suffocation of the Land by Saw Mills.

Saw mills suffocate the Photosynthetic capacity of the sites on which they are constructed.

2.4.3.2: The Suffocation of the Land by the Drying out Process.

The land on which manure is dried suffers geophysiological destruction.

2.4.3.3: Mining.

The mining of the ores needed to create bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries, bioliquid containers, vehicles, etc causes geophysiological damage.

2.4.3.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores needed to create bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries, bioliquid containers, vehicles, etc causes geophysiological damage.

2.4.3.5: Manufacturing.

The land on which the manufacturing of bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries, bioliquid containers, vehicles, etc takes place suffers geophysiological damage.

2.4.3.6: The Suffocation of the Land by Biolquid Plants.

Bioliquid refineries/incinerators/distilleries destroy the land's Photosynthetic capacity of the land on which they are sited. In brazil there are around 600 distilleries. [23] ; "Several European countries including France, Italy and Austria have begun production. All three countries have built large scale biodiesel biofuel factories and the French government has signed an agreement to initially use 100,000 hectares of land with 700,000 hectares as the long term target. [24]

2.4.3.7: Waste.

It is not known whether the waste material left over after the refinement of bioliquids can be used for fertiliser or whether it has to be dumped.

2.4.4: Conclusions.

The complexity of the treatment, conversion and refining of bioliquids tends to mean they are likely to be produced only on a large scale. Whilst small scale biogas plants are commonplace, small scale bioliquid refineries are scarce.

2.5: The Conversion of Green Energy to Electricity.

2.5.1: Background.

2.5.1.1: The Green Sources of Energy burnt in Power Stations.

This section looks at the geophysiological damage caused by the conversion process of the green sources of energy used to generate electricity. The energy sources highlighted in the previous section could be used not merely to generate hot water but to generate the steam needed to drive electricity turbines. They could also be used in combined heat and power schemes. They undergo the same treatment and conversion process to generate the hot water used to create electricity. This section is therefore similar to the previous section. Just as the geophysiological analysis of the generation of hot water built on the geophysiological analysis of the generation of heat, so this section builds on the previous section. The primary difference between this and the previous section is that an alternative energy system creating steam for electricity requires more machinery and usually takes place on a far larger, more centralized, scale. This requires more mining, processing, manufacturing, etc, causing additional geophysiological damage. The conversion process for solar cells, (and possibly) wind power, wave power, hydro-electric power, etc is different from that for Phytomass etc and is outlined in the next section.

The second difference between this section and the previous one is that, in the former, Phytomass, biomass, bacteria and inorganic waste were burnt to generate hot water for electricity whereas in this section they are used to generate biogas or bioliquid fuels which is then burnt in power stations to generate electricity. The generation of electricity in this section is one stage longer than that discussed in the previous section.

2.5.1.2: The Spread of Green Power Stations.

Fibrowatt.

There are a few examples of factory pharm manure being burnt to produce electricity, "A pioneering london based firm called fibrowatt has already set up two power stations fuelled by poultry litter. Rupert fraser, finance director of fibrowatt, said the company's new stations at eye, suffolk and glanford, south humberside would be competitive within five years. And he added, "As it is we are producing energy from a genuinely renewable source and with significant environmental benefits." Fibrowatt want to build four new stations around the country .." [25] ; "Fibropower, the world's first commercial company to burn poultry litter to generate electricity, was launched yesterday. Fibropower sells 12.5 megawatts to the 12 regional electricity companies. As a rule of thumb, one Chicken's output makes one watt. (The dumping of Chicken waste would cause atmospheric pollution and pollute rivers). The resultant ash is a valuable byproduct, which is nitrate free and rich in phosphate and potash." [26]

Arbre Power Scheme at Eggborough.

"So far only one farmer has signed up to supply chips - from just 12ha, whereas the plant will need 5000 aces of coppice to run. But the forestry commission has now announced it will put in £1 million every year for three years from 1998 till 2001 .. in other words the extra money is simply and solely to save the arbre project." [27]

Brutland.

The brutish government has given the go-ahead for another experiment in this form of energy, "In December the government finally announced its first round of support for renewable energy in Scotland. The Scottish Renewables Obligation gives the go-ahead to 30 projects: 12 wind farms, 15 small hydro schemes; 2 landfill gas projects and a biomass project - utilising 110,000 tonnes of poultry farm litter." [28]

2.5.1.3: The Types of Incinerators in Alternative Power Stations.

There are various types of incinerator to unlock the energy in alternative sources of energy. The type of incinerator used often depends on the source of energy being used. For wood - advanced wood gasification linked to gas turbines, conventional chip combustion with conventional steam turbines; pyrolysis. For short rotation coppicing - "advanced co-generation techniques." [29]

2.5.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by Green Power Stations.

2.5.2.1: Conversion of Green Sources of Energy.

The energy used by the machines in the saw mills to create wood chippings releases atmospheric pollution. The drying of Animal/ooman manure releases atmospheric pollution.

2.5.2.2: Mining.

The mining of the ores used in the manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, electricity turbines, incinerators, etc releases greenhouse gases.

2.5.2.3: Quarrying.

The quarrying of the materials used in the construction of power stations releases greenhouse gases.

2.5.2.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores used in the manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, electricity turbines, furnaces, etc releases greenhouse gases.

2.5.2.5: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of the machines/equipment used in the construction of power stations, the manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, electricity turbines, furnaces, etc, releases greenhouse gases.

2.5.2.6: Construction of Power Stations.

The construction of power stations or combined heat and power stations releases greenhouse gases.

2.5.2.7: Incineration.

The incineration of green fuels in power stations releases greenhouse gases. In conventional power stations the pollution is enormous, "Power stations, the largest single producer of carbon dioxide, account for one third of Britain's 159 million tonne output." [30] It has been estimated that, "Environmentally, every kilowatt of electricity produces 1 kg carbon dioxide, 22g sulphur dioxide, 3g nitrogen oxides." [31]

2.5.2.8: Waste.

The burning of green fuels in power stations generates ash which can be used as fertiliser.

2.5.2.9: Transport.

The transportation of the source of energy to the saw mill; the transportation of the converted fuel to domestic/communal incinerators releases greenhouse gases; the transportation of the ores to the processors, the transportation of processed metals to the manufacturers, etc. The more extensive the power station, the further the fuels have to be transported, the greater the pollution. It has been estimated that for Tree energy plantations feeding a power station, "A 10mwe unit run continuously at 80% efficiency would require around 60 tonnes of wood chip per day i.e.3x20 tonne lorry loads per day." [32]

2.5.2.10: Thermal Pollution.

A substantial proportion of the heat generated in conventional power stations is wasted .. "only 35% of primary energy is converted into electricity, the rest is lost as hot air and hot water." [33] Just how much alternative power stations will reduce this form of pollution is not known. The transmission of electricity via the national electricity grid also results in waste heat. This helps to boost the heat island effect.

2.5.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Planet's Carbon Spiral Caused by the Green Power Stations.

2.5.3.1: Conversion of Green Sources of Energy.

The energy used by the machines in the saw mills to create wood chippings causes geophysiological damage. The drying of Animal/ooman manure causes geophysiological damage.

2.5.3.2: Mining.

The mining of the ores used in the manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, electricity turbines, furnaces, etc causes geophysiological damage.

2.5.3.3: Quarrying.

The quarrying of the materials used in the construction of power stations causes geophysiological damage.

2.5.3.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores used in the manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, electricity turbines, furnaces, etc causes geophysiological damage.

2.5.3.5: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of the materials used in the construction of power stations, the manufacture of vehicles, saw mills, electricity turbines, furnaces, etc causes geophysiological damage.

2.5.3.6: Construction.

The construction of power stations or combined heat and power stations damages the Earth's life support system. Natural gas powered stations cause much less damage to the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity compared to coal fired power stations, "The 1,875 MW Teeside power station (gas fired combined cycle heat and power station) occupies 23 acres compared to 800 acres for a coal-fired plant." [34]

2.5.3.7: Waste.

The burning of green fuels in power stations generates ash which can be used as fertiliser. If applied to the land this will boost soil fertility and thus increases the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

2.5.3.8: Transport.

The transportation of the various items used in the generation of electricity in power stations requires roads. The green electricity industry must therefore take a share of the geophysiological damage caused by roads.

2.5.4: Conclusions.

The geophysiological damage caused by alternative power stations themselves is not large but when the geophysiological damage caused by other aspects of alternative electricity generation are considered it is much more extensive. Firstly, the sources of energy; secondly, the matrix of industries serving the power industry; thirdly, the more that alternative electricity is consumed by electrical goods, the more the geophysiological damage caused by those goods would have to be included as part of the damage caused by alternative energy. For the damage caused by the transmission of electricity see part three.

There are instances when the conversion process of alternative energy into electricity is so extended that it ends up doing what it could have done before being converted into electricity. Crops are grown to produce Phytomass which is then burnt to provide electricity. If this electricity is then distributed to consumers who use it to provide heat for their homes then the green energy is virtually back where it started since it could have been burnt to provide the heat required. The longer the journey from the source of alternative energy to its eventual consumption the greater the energy loss, and the greater the pollution.

2.6: Bioliquids/Biogas Electricity Stations.

2.6.1: The Spread of Biopower Stations.

Brook Hall, Londonderry.

.. "the Brook hall estate biomass project in londonderry. This small-scale (100kW) CHP gasification plant will start life by consuming hard woods from local forests. The first harvest of src (willow) takes place in two years time. The second is b9's blackwater valley museum project. This chp plant uses downdraft gasification, and will commence life consuming sawmill wastes until such time as woodchips from src are available. On site, the continuous feed of wood fuel is controlled automatically, and the data is transmitted to b9's office for remote monitoring. Further down the line, pyrolysis may turn out to be a better bet than the use of gasified wood chips: with pyrolysis the biomass is burnt in an oxygen starved atmosphere to produce an oily combustible liquid. There was talk of pyrolysis refineries located near the source of supply, with the oil creation process separated from the generating process. Thus one refinery would serve a number of generators. Also, like any other liquid fuel, there need never be a supply problem at the generator sites." [35]

2.6.2: Geophysiological Damage.

It is not possible to provide any assessment of the geopysiological damage caused by bioliquid/biogas power stations because details are scarce. The size of biopower plants may not be significant if natural gas power stations are anything to go by, "The 1,875 MW Teeside power station (gas fired combined cycle heat and power station) occupies 23 acres compared to 800 acres for a coal-fired plant." [36]

2.7: The Conversion of Solar Energy from DC into AC.

The electricity generated by solar energy is in the form of direct current. This needs to be converted into alternating current for domestic and industrial use, "It is a means of converting solar electricity (PV is in the form of direct current whereas most machines and appliances run on high voltage alternating current) into alternating current, a more useable form of electricity. It is also a means of converting electrical energy into gaseous or liquid fuel, which is important because only about 25% of our (the US) current energy needs are supplied in the form of electricity." [37]

2.8: The Conversion of Bioliquids to Biogas and Vice versa.

It is relatively easy to turn biogas into bioliquids and vice versa.