1.1.10: Biomass.

1.1.10.1: Background.

1.1.10.1.1: The Status of Biomass.

In this work biomass refers to Manure, Animals' bodies (including oomans), and organic waste (waste paper, cardboard, or food wastes whether domestic or commercial). Manure is basically digested Phytomass; Animals' bodies are reconstituted Phytomass; and organic waste is processed Phytomass. Biomass is a renewable resource but it should not be treated as a renewable form of energy. The renewability of biomass depends on it being returned to the soil to aid the growth of next year's Phytomass. It is quite easy to compost waste paper, cardboard, or food wastes. This section explores only the use made of manure as a form of energy.

1.1.10.1.2: The Creation of Different Types of Energy.

The nutrients in manure should be returned to the soil to maintain Photosynthetic productivity rather than being used as a source of energy. But, if it is used as a source of energy then, like Phytomass, it is a flexible form of energy and can be used for direct heating; burnt in an incinerator to provide electricity; or used to generate gaseous/liquid fuels, "In theory, Animal fats could also be turned into biodiesel and a few years ago this was proposed as a way of using up unwanted tallow from Sheep in new zealand." [1] As has already been seen, manure could be used to grow Hyacinths for the generation of energy.

Biomass can be processed and burnt in a huge, capital intensive, power plant or in small, back garden, reactors, "Biogas plants .. the fermentation of Animal dung, human excreta or crop residues in an airtight container yields a methane rich gas. This can be used to heat stoves, light lamps, run machinery or produce electricity. The residue left by biogas production can be used as a fertiliser or as a component in Animal feed." [2]

1.1.10.1.3: The Scale of Manure Being Recycled.

Some american cities are recycling their sewage sludge, "In the 1980s cities making fertiliser from sludge had trouble finding buyers. Once quality improved farmers began to demand sludge based fertiliser, which sells for less than petrochemical fertilisers. By 1992 the percentage of u.s. sludge recycled to fertiliser had risen from about 20% to 48% and was still headed up." [3]

1.1.10.1.4: The Scale of Manure being Dumped into the Environment.

The vast majority of sewage around the world is dumped into the environment, "About 95% of the world's sewage is poured straight into rivers and other waterflows ..." [4] ; "As of 1992 all sewage generated in the u.s. is treated before discharge, usually in facilities that bring the water to a standard safe for swimming. In western europe only 72% of sewage is treated. In mediterranean countries 30% is treated, in the caribbean 10%, and in the rest of the world, including the former soviet bloc, about 2%." [5] The over-industrialized nations are attempting to phase out the dumping of sewage .. "Ocean dumping of sewage by the u.s. .. ended in june 1992." [6]

1.1.10.1.5: The Scale of Organic Material being Dumped into the Environment.

At present vast quantities of organic waste are being dumped.

Brutland.

"Each year an estimated 250 million tonnes of organic matter including domestic and industrial waste, human and animal faeces and agricultural/forestry residue, is generated in the UK. Only a fraction of this is converted at all, never mind efficiently." [7]

1.1.10.1.6: The Scale of the Manure Used for Energy.

China.

In china it is a common practice to feed Animal manure into bioreactors to produce energy. It has been estimated that there are 7 million biogas plants in china. [8]

India.

In third world countries Animal manure is often used to produce energy, "In rural India, animal wastes supply an estimated 30 per cent of fuel energy." [9]

United States of America.

Given the very low status attached to alternative fuels in this country it might come as a surprise that, "The United States produces more power through biogeneration using organic sources like sewage sludge and methane from landfill tips than through nuclear power." [10]

1.1.10.1.7: The Treatment of Manure.

There are three main ways of treating manure. It can be used as a fertiliser and returned to the soil. It can be burnt to provide energy. Or, it can be dumped into the environment - often waterways and the sea. Although manure should be returned to the soil the fact is that a huge proportion of it is either used for energy or being dumped. When manure is dumped into the environment it causes a considerable range of geophysiological problems. However, the problems caused by dumping are not of relevance in this work. The main drawback with using manure as a fertiliser is that a significant proportion of both ooman and livestock manure is contaminated with a huge range of elements and chemicals. This means there is little other choice except dumping it or using it for energy. If all manure was uncontaminated it could be returned to the land and there would be no geophysiological problems. This work is concerned about the geophysiological damage caused by the use of manure as a form of energy.

The following sections look at the scale of the geophysiological damage caused by the collection and storage of manure to be used as a source of energy. For manure to become a source of energy it must undergo a conversion process and the geophysiological damage caused by this is explored in the next chapter.

1.1.10.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by the Sources of Biomass.

1.1.10.2.1: The Collection of Animal Manure.

The Animal exploitation industry generates vast quantities of manure. Where livestock are grazed most of the manure naturally returns to the soil. However, in intensively reared livestock systems the manure is drained from feedlots and stored in lagoons. At this point the manure can either be sprayed onto the land, taken away and dumped or processed and used for energy. The storage of manure releases greenhouse gases.

1.1.10.2.2: The Collection of Ooman Manure.

Ooman manure is collected in an entirely different way from livestock manure. In the over-industrialized countries most households are sluiced away via a vast network of sewage pipes to a sewage works. At this point the manure can be collected and transported to be dumped or turned into energy.

1.1.10.2.3: Mining/Quarrying.

The mining/quarrying of ores and raw materials needed for the manufacturing of lavatories, public conveniences, the sewage pipeline system and sewage works, etc, releases greenhouse gases. For a more detailed discussion of the sewage pipeline system see chapter three.

1.1.10.2.4: Processing.

The processing of the ores and raw materials needed for the manufacture of lavatories, public conveniences, the sewage pipeline system and sewage works, etc, releases greenhouse gases.

1.1.10.2.5: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing process releases greenhouse gases.

1.1.10.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by the Sources of Biomass.

1.1.10.3.1: The Decline in Photosynthesis brought about by the Elongation of the Carbon Spiral.

In the long distant past, when Animals and oomans relied solely upon renewable resources, all the Phytomass they consumed was converted into manure and deposited on the ground. This boosted next year's Phytomass and, in effect, maximized Photosynthetic productivity. Since the industrial revolution, manure has been transported away from urban areas and dumped. This has delayed the amount of time before these nutrients could stimulate Photosynthesis. When manure is collected and burnt, the delay is even longer. A significant proportion of the nutrients released into the atmosphere remain airborne for centuries before they're finally extracted from the atmosphere by Photosynthesis. In both cases there is a reduction in the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity. The less manure is returned to the soil, or the longer it takes to return manure to the soil, the less productive the soil, "In virtually every present method of biomass energy production, all the plant material is removed and converted to fuels or animal feed residues that are too valuable to return to the soil. (The single, notable, exception is again biogas production; in China the nitrogen rich fertiliser residue is considered a more important by-product than the gas itself). The loss of most or all of the plant material that is normally recycled to maintain soil structure and fertility is potentially far more serious. Several studies have recently established that if husbanding the soil is given high priority, the potential for net production of biomass energy from each acre of land is drastically reduced." [11]

1.1.10.3.2: The Suffocation caused by Manure Lagoons.

Manure lagoons damage the Earth's life support system.

1.1.10.3.3: The Poisoning of the Soil caused by Overflows of Animal Manure.

The manure stored in lagoons contains a wide range of poisons. If this manure gets onto the land there is the chance that it will poison the soil and reduce its Photosynthetic output. This section is not concerned with the poisoning of the soil caused by spraying manure onto fields but by the accidental overflows of manure which is supposed to be used as a source of alternative energy. The following section is a list of elements and chemicals contaminating many manure lagoons.

1.1.10.3.3.1: The Contamination of Livestock Animal Lagoons.

Nitrogen and Phosphorous.

Organic and Mineral Nitrogen.

Ammonia.

The Bacteria in lagoons break down manure releasing ammonia into the atmosphere - thus causing acid rain. [12]

Metals in Livestock Feed - Zinc and Copper.

Some of the chemicals added to livestock feed to boost livestock growth are not digested but end up in manure lagoons, "Zinc and copper, two metals that are added to Swine and Poultry feeds, are turning up in increasing amounts in the soils of the state's major livestock producing counties .. In small doses, these metals are vital nutrients for plants; at high level they become toxic. And once a field becomes contaminated, it is virtually impossible to undo the damage. The data shows that levels of copper and zinc are rising by as much as 10% a year in counties (in the u.s.) where Animal waste is being applied to land in large volumes." [13] ; "Because Pigs cannot digest all the nutrients, their manure is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus and laced with heavy metals such as copper and zinc, which poison the soil when they accumulate." [14] In the e.c. the levels of zinc and copper added to Pig feeds is now limited by legislation.

Insecticides.

Manure lagoons give off a nauseating odour attracting Flies, "Flies are drawn from miles away, swarming and breeding in a 2 mile radius around waste lagoons." [15] Lagoons have to be treated regularly with insecticides to prevent Fly swarms. When manure is sprayed onto the land these insecticides also end up on the land.

Viruses and Diseases.

Manure contains a wide range of diseases, "Wastes from big Pig farms also threaten well water and surface water with parasites, bacteria and viruses. These include streptococcus, giardia, salmonella, listeria, and chlamydia, along with avian botulism and cholera, which kill thousands of migratory water fowl." [16]

Anti-biotics, Hormones.

Livestock are given a wide range of medicines and hormone boosters, "A factory Pig's grain-based diet is heavy in protein and additives designed to pack on muscle as fast as possible." [17] Once again, what goes in has got to come out.

1.1.10.3.3.2: Overflowing/Leaking Lagoons Poisoning the Soil.

If too much manure gets onto the land it poisons the soil, "The frequent application of say, chicken manure to soil has severe disadvantages. Within perhaps ten years, a sourness in the soil makes it unsuitable for the cultivation of most plants, except nettles." [18]

In the united states, during the early cowboy days of the industrialization of Pig pharming, Pig corporations argued that all they needed to do to dispose of manure was to dig a hole in the ground and pour in the manure. They refused to line the lagoons to prevent seepage because they argued that the heavier material in the manure would sink to the bottom and seal the lagoon. They dismissed accusations that the manure would contaminate water supplies. This was, of course, baloney.

Many lagoons were over-filled or torrential downpours caused them to overflow, "In north carolina .. a rain swollen lagoon spilled 100 million litres of hog faeces and urine over the countryside." [19] It was only after a huge spill from an overfull Pig lagoon that u.s. government agencies started inspecting lagoons in north carolina and discovered the scale of the problems, "Emergency inspections by two state agencies after the june spill found 124 lagoons filled to the brink and 526 dangerously overloaded." [20] Pharmers benefit from floods since this washes away much of the lagoons' contents.

1.1.10.3.4: The Poisoning of the Soil caused by Leaks of Ooman Manure.

1.1.10.3.4.1: The Contamination of Ooman Manure.

Ooman manure is just as contaminated as livestock manure. It is contaminated not only by the poisons which people consume but by the cleaners and other junk poured down lavatories into the sewage system.

1.1.10.3.4.2: The Leaking of the Sewage Network.

In countries with sewage systems, sewage pipes are sometimes broken allowing the sewage to leak out and poison the soil.

1.1.10.3.5: Mining/Quarrying.

The mining/quarrying of ores and raw materials needed for the manufacturing of lavatories, public conveniences, the sewage pipeline system and sewage works, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

1.1.10.3.6: Processing.

The processing of the ores and raw materials needed for the manufacture of lavatories, public conveniences, the sewage pipeline system and sewage works, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

1.1.10.3.7: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing process causes geophysiological damage. For a more detailed exploration of the geopysiological damage caused by the sewage system see chapter three.

1.1.10.3.8: The Developments Triggered by Manure.

The use of manure as a source of energy could create a range of geophysiological problems. Using manure for energy could create a demand for more and more manure. This will encourage the growth of the livestock population (both Animal and oomans). The more oomans there are, the more shit they produce, the more energy they can generate, the greater the wealth they can enjoy, the more kids they can bring up, the more waste they produce. This clearly is a death spiral.

1.1.10.4: Conclusions.

1.1.10.4.1: The Anthropogenic Perspective on Manure.

Geophysiologically, the best use of manure is as a fertiliser. Pharmyard/ooman manure is not a waste product and should not be treated as such. Manure is, essentially, a fertilizer, a vital part of the Earth's cycle of growth and decay, and should be recycled rather than dumped or misappropriated as a source of energy. However, from an anthropogenic perspective, it is better to use manure as a source of energy rather than dumping it in rivers or the oceans.

Firstly, when manure is dumped, the resources it contains are wasted and the cost of dumping manure is a burden. But using manure as a form of energy means these resources aren't wasted. They can also generate profits. Secondly, in many countries around the world, livestock Manure (Animal and ooman) is dumped offshore where it pollutes the marine environment and poses a health hazard to the oomans who swim in the sea. It also contaminates marine Animals which, if eaten by oomans, pose a health threat to oomans. Using manure as a source of energy would be a major step forward in reducing ooman environmental pollution i.e. the pollution which affects oomans rather than the Earth. From an anthropogenic perspective there are advantages in incinerating manure for energy rather than dumping it. For the geophysiological damage caused by the incineration of manure see the next chapter.

1.1.10.4.2: The Political Implications of Manure.

The consequences of using Manure as a fertilizer or as a source of energy are entirely different. If manure is used as a source of energy the temptation is to demand a continual increase in the number of oomans/Animals to keep up with ever increasing demands for energy. Whilst ever increasing ooman/Animal numbers would be beneficial for energy production it would cause considerable geophysiological damage. If, however, manure is used only as a fertilizer this implies a limit to ooman and Animal numbers because the land could absorb only a limited amount of manure, beyond which the manure becomes poisonous to the soil.

The second political implication of using manure as a form of energy is that some commentators believe this should be done on the large scale rather than on the domestic scale, "For biomass to make a significant contribution to global energy needs we may have to move a very long way indeed from small-scale, decentralized and otherwise 'soft' methods and look to large scale systems with management, distribution and trade on a national and international basis." [21]

TWO: INORGANIC ENERGY.

1.2.1: Background.

1.2.1.1: The Types of Inorganic Material.

Inorganic waste consists of metals, paints, plastics, chemicals, solvents, consumer commodities, clothes, tyres/oil, industrial wastes, toxic wastes, etc. Although there is a clear distinction between organic and inorganic waste, in practice they are invariably mixed together and treated as the same.

1.2.1.2: The Status of Inorganic Material.

Just as is the case with organic material, inorganic matter should be recycled.

1.2.1.3: The Treatment of Inorganic Material.

There are five ways of treating inorganic waste. It can be recycled, incinerated for disposal, incinerated to generate energy, dumped in a landfill, or landfilled for the extraction of energy. It has been proposed that inorganic waste should be recycled. However, it is not possible to be as strict about this as should be the case for organic material. There are limits to the recycling of inorganic materials. Some sorts of inorganic matter can be recycled; other sorts can be recycled but doing so causes more geophysiological damage than not recycling; and, finally, there are some types of inorganic matter which are so contaminated they cannot be recycled.

1.2.1.4: The Creation of Different Types of Energy.

If it is not possible to recycle inorganic material it could be used as a source of alternative energy. Inorganic waste can either be landfilled for energy or incinerated for energy. If it is incinerated it could provide hot water for district heating schemes or steam to drive electricity turbines. If it is landfilled it can be converted into gas/liquid fuels.

1.2.1.5: The Scale of the Dumping of Inorganic Material.

The scale of inorganic matter being dumped around the world, but primarily by the over-industrialized nations, is colossal.

1.2.1.5.1: General.

Russia.

"More than 1.6 billion tons of Russia's toxic industrial waste is dumped on unused ground or in quarries outside major cities." [22]

United States of America.

"If everyone in the United States recycled 100% of what now constitutes their personal solid waste, 99% of the nation's solid waste would remain. The solution does not lie with individual consumers changing their individual habits." [23]

Worldwide.

"The world makes and tosses away at least 200 billion bottles, cans, plastic cartons, and paper and plastic cups each year." [24]

1.2.1.5.2: Batteries.

Britain.

"Batteries are dumped in large numbers. 100 million are discarded every year." [25]

1.2.1.5.3: Cars.

Western Europe.

"Western Europe has a population of about 120 million cars, around 7 or 8 million of which are scrapped each year." [26]

The Over-Industrialized Nations.

"In western Europe, Japan and the USA, nearly 40 million cars are discarded every year." [27]

United States of America.

"Between 1900 and 1984, 647,507,000 automobiles, trucks, and buses were junked in the United States alone." [28] ; "Since 1900, 650 million cars have been abandoned and dumped in the US." [29]

1.2.1.5.4: Tyres.

Australia.

"12 million in Australia." [30]

Britain.

"23 million tyres are discarded each year in the UK alone." [31] ; "At present, about 17 million of Britain's estimated annual 27 million scrap tyres are dumped in landfills or stored." [32]

United States of America.

"In the United States, 240 million tyres are discarded every year." [33]

1.2.1.5.5: Nappies.

"Nine billion disposable nappies weighing more than 70,000 tonnes must be dumped in Britain every year." [34]

1.2.1.6: The Recycling of Inorganic Material.

1.2.1.6.1: Proportion of Cars Being Dumped/Incinerated/Recycled.

"About 25% of the weight of vehicles, involving mainly plastics, glass and rubber, has to be dumped because no economic recycling processes are available." [35] ; "For years to come 20% or more of each car will be buried in scarce landfill sites." [36]

1.2.1.6.2: Proportion of Tyres Being Incinerated/Recycled.

Every year, billions of rubber tyres are produced around the world to fit all types of vehicles, "In the past ten years, only 4-7% of old tyres have been shredded and recycled into such things as mats, carpet underlay, fenders and road surfaces. With retreads, the casing of the tyre is reused. Since the major proportion of oil used in the manufacture of a new tyre is in the casing, retreaded tyres save energy. An average tyre can be retreaded two or three times yet, at the moment, only 4 million of the 30 million tyres scrapped in the UK are reclaimed for retreading.." [37] ; "A scrapped tyre still has about 80% of its original material intact - top grade rubber, high quality steel and cotton fibres. Most tyres can be retreaded 2 or 3 times, yet at present only 4 million of the 30 million tyres scrapped in Britain each year are." [38]

1.2.1.6.3: The Recycling of Oil Rigs?

"Observers have pointed to the fact that the US insists on all redundant platforms being removed from its waters. Since 1987, 914 structures have been removed from the Gulf of Mexico." [39]

1.2.1.7: The Spread of Inorganic Energy.

A huge proportion of inorganic waste continues to be incinerated without generating energy. However, the energy from waste programme is expanding.

Elm Energy.

Elm energy are building a £50 million incinerator at wolverhampton, "That will be capable of converting 12 million tyres a year into electricity." [40]

Brutland.

"More controversially, more than half of the new orders go to waste incineration, expected to provide 50-100 MW, this has now been increased to 261 MW. According to greenpeace over 3 million tonnes of waste will have to be incinerated to reach the target of 261 MW. This will produce an estimated 570,000 tonnes of toxic ashes and 4,600 tonnes of air pollution." [41]

The following sections provide a geophysiological analysis for the collection of inorganic material when it is dumped in landfill sites or incinerated. In other words, this section looks at landfill sites and incinerators as sources of alternative energy. For the conversion of landfill sites and incinerators into generators of alternative energy see following chapter.

1.2.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by Landfilling Inorganic Matter.

Most landfill sites contain both organic and inorganic waste. There are few waste dumps designed solely for inorganic matter or organic matter e.g. tyre dumps, car dumps, etc. Most of the energy to be derived from landfilling waste comes from organic material rather than inorganic material. The reason for this is simple, a significant proportion of inorganic material does not biodegrade, "Tyres do not biodegrade in landfill dumps." [42] When considering the following analysis it must be borne in mind that most landfill sites contain a mixture of organic, and inorganic, material.

1.2.2.1: Mining.

The mining of the materials used in the collection, storage and creation of the landfill site, etc, all release greenhouse gases.

1.2.2.2: Processing.

The processing of the materials for landfill sites also releases greenhouse gases.

1.2.2.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of the vehicles used for refuse collection, the manufacturing of the machines, equipment and materials needed for the creation of a landfill site, etc, all release greenhouse gases.

1.2.2.4: Site Clearance.

The clearance of sites for landfills may entail deforestation which releases greenhouse gases.

1.2.2.5: Construction of Landfill Dumps.

The construction of landfill sites releases greenhouse gases. The construction of landfill sites is often no more complex than digging a hole in the ground and filling it with rubbish. Some of the leachate from old landfill sites is transported into new landfill sites to accelerate the decomposition process .. "recycled leachate is used to initiate the decomposition process in dry areas. [43]

1.2.2.6: Leakages from Inorganic Dumps.

Landfill sites designed to generate energy are supposed to collect all the gas to be converted into energy but there are leakages which boost the greenhouse effect.

1.2.2.7: The Accidental Incineration of Inorganic Dumps.

If a tyre landfill/dump catches fire it releases prodigious quantities of pollution. The following examples of fires at tyre dumps shows that tyres should never be dumped firstly, because they don't biodegrade and, secondly, because they are liable to ignite.

Canada.

A massive tyre dump in hagersville, canada, caught fire and generated such high temperatures it had to be left to burn for two weeks until it cooled down enough to be brought under control, "In February 1990 a single dump of 14 million tyres in Canada caught fire. The tyres burnt for two weeks. The thick acrid, black smoke from burning tyres contains suspended particulate matter and a potentially lethal cocktail of gases." [44]

England.

Rochdale.

"The potential seriousness of such a situation (tyre dump fires) is well illustrated by a similar incident at Crown reservoir, Rochdale, in 1975 where, despite prompt action in isolating the reservoir trace amounts of phenolic substances gained access to the public water supply giving rise to strong taste problems after chlorination. The North West Water authority concluded at the time that the reservoir should not be brought back into supply in the foreseeable future." [45]

Scotland.

Beith.

In the summer of 1978 a fire took place in a .. "dump containing 15,000 tonnes of tyres at an old quarry near Beith in Ayrshire. Pyrolitic distillation of the rubber within the dump produced an estimated 90,000 litres of black oil much of which found its way into the Dusk Water killing all fish life and most of the bottom fauna for a distance of 10 kilometres. The Clyde River Purification Board's staff removed over 50,000 litres of oil from the river. Under starved air conditions pyrolitic distillation of the rubber produces a complex mixture of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. Analyses of the oil recovered in this case showed the presence of several hundred organic compounds, some of which were known to be toxic or carcinogenic and, through interaction, might intensify their effect." [46]

Glasgow.

"In 1980, an enormous fire suddenly erupted at a Glasgow tyre dump - it is still burning." [47]

Wales.

There have been a .. "continuing series of fires at a mid-Wales dump of more than 10 million discarded tyres .. The blaze first flared up six months ago, more than 25 years after the first rejects were thrown into a deep gully at Heyope near Knighton. It is thought that as the tyres pile up, spontaneous combustion causes them to smoulder and ignite. It took firemen several days to bring the outbreak under control. The dump was then covered with earth in an attempt to seal the fire. But it still smoulders deep down, and occasionally flames spurt through the surface. Firemen and staff from the local authority's environmental department monitor the situation regularly. A stream running beneath the dump flows into the River Teme. The National Rivers Authority claims that although levels of phenol have been detected, by the time the water is extracted for the public supply downstream the contamination has been so diluted as to pose no health threat. However, Graham Smith, a Radnor district councillor, says, "Men are skimming some pretty horrible stuff from the surface of the stream after it emerges. Some days they fill two or three large drums." The firm that controls the dump, Motorway Remoulds, is a major employer in Knighton. The company is continuing to dump thousands of old tyres every week." [48] ; "Vandals set fire to a dump containing ten million old tyres owned by Motorway Remoulds in Mid-Wales three years ago. It is still burning and could burn for another ten years." [49]

Worldwide.

"All over the world, in the last few decades, similar inextinguishable blazes have spontaneously ignited in other tyre dumps." [50]

1.2.2.8: Transportation.

Whereas manure can be transported from homes to sewage works via the sewerage system, inorganic waste has to be transported by vehicles to landfill sites.

1.2.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by Landfilling Inorganic Matter.

1.2.3.1: Mining.

The mining of the materials used in the manufacture of equipment/machines used in the collection, storage and creation of landfill sites, etc, causes geophysiological damage.

1.2.3.2: Processing.

The processing of the materials for landfill sites causes geophysiological damage.

1.2.3.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of the vehicles used for refuse collection, the manufacturing of the machines, equipment, and materials, needed for the creation of landfill sites, cause geophysiological damage.

1.2.3.4: Suffocation.

The construction of landfill sites, garbage vehicle depots, garbage storage depots, etc destroys the sites' Photosynthetic capacity. If the land had previously been Forested this would cause a dramatic reduction in the area's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.2.3.5: The Poisoning of Phytomass.

If toxins leak from landfill sites leach into the soil and/or into the drinking water they could damage Phytomass and reduce the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.2.3.6: The Accidental Incineration of Inorganic Dumps.

The accidental incineration of tyres in landfill sites releases huge amounts of pollution and damages the Photosynthetic capacity of the surrounding land.

1.2.3.7: Transportation.

The transportation of ores from mines to the processors, and then to the manufacturers; the transportation of machines and equipment from the manufacturers to landfill sites, the transportation of inorganic waste, etc all cause geophysiological damage. Whereas manure can be transported from homes to sewage works via the sewerage system, inorganic waste has to be transported by vehicles to landfill sites.

1.2.4: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by the Incineration of Inorganic Energy.

This, and the following, sections provide a geophysiological analysis of the damage brought about through the collection of inorganic material for incineration. For the geophysiological damage caused by the conversion of inorganic material into alternative energy by incineration see chapter two. For the geophysiological problems caused by the transmission of heat, hot water, or electricity generated by incinerators see chapter three.

1.2.4.1: Mining.

The mining for raw materials needed for the manufacture of the vehicles which collect inorganic waste for incinerators releases atmospheric pollution.

1.2.4.2: Processing.

The processing of materials releases atmospheric pollution.

1.2.4.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of the items needed for the collection of inorganic waste material releases atmospheric pollution.

1.2.4.4: Transportation.

The transportation of raw materials from the mines to the processors and then onto the manufacturers, etc releases atmospheric pollution.

1.2.4.5: The Collection of Inorganic Matter.

The transportation of inorganic material from consumers/industries to storage depots or incinerators releases atmospheric pollution.

1.2.5: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by the Incineration of Inorganic Energy.

1.2.5.1: Mining.

The mining for raw materials needed for the collection of waste material damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity and boosts global burning.

1.2.5.2: Processing.

The processing of materials needed for the manufacture/construction of waste material damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.2.5.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of items needed for the collection of waste material damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.2.5.4: Transportation.

The transportation of ores to the processors; the transportation of materials to the incinerator manufacturers; the transportation of incinerators to incineration site; all damage the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.2.5.5: The Collection of Inorganic Matter.

The transportation of waste material to incinerators damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity and thus boosts global burning. The storage of this inorganic material suffocates the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.2.6: Conclusions.

At present, only a small proportion of domestic, and industrial, inorganic waste is recycled. Although recycling is the best option for inorganic material it still causes geophysiological damage. In sustainable societies recycling would entail a minimal amount of geophysiological damage which would be within the toleration limits of the Earth's life support system. However, in consumer societies, the recycling of vast quantities of inorganic material is bound to cause a considerable amount of geophysiological damage. Indeed recycling is likely to push consumer societies even further beyond their geophysiological limitations. Recycling is not good under all circumstances; it is only unequivocally acceptable geophysiologically within a sustainable society. Nevertheless it is likely to be the case that recycling causes less geophysiological damage in any society, sustainable or not, in comparison to dumping or incinerating. It was pointed out earlier that incineration was necessary where the geophysiological damage caused by recycling was greater than incineration or dumping. Gregg easterbrook believes that .. "green orthodoxy rejects the burning of anything that might be recycled. Any form of burning of waste chemicals or used products for energy now offends orthodoxy, even if toxics are destroyed and fossil fuels displaced." [51] He backs up his supports for the burning of toxic material by suggesting they could be destroyed in kilns, "Burning toxic wastes as cement fuel is attractive because the kilns operate at around 2,700F, hot enough to destroy almost all molecular chains." [52] It is not known whether this method is viable. Although greenpeace argue, "It is wrong to call incineration a renewable energy." [53] it is not certain they oppose incineration. Ultimately, the point is not that society shouldn't burn particularly toxic types of waste as that society should not produce products that cannot be recycled.

THREE: BACTERIOLOGICAL ENERGY.

1.3.1: Developments of Bacteriological (Non-Photosynthetic) Energy.

Some forms of bacteria create energy through Photosynthesis but others do not. Non-Photosynthesizing bacteriological energy is often overlooked in accounts of alternative energy but some commentators believe it could be a useful source of energy e.g. producing gaseous/liquid fuels such as hydrogen. A few commentators believe future societies could be based on products produced by microbes just as today's societies are based on oil - which, it should not be forgotten, is partly produced by microbes. This form of energy is still at the research stage and there is little information about its impact on the Earth's Carbon spiral.

FOUR: TIDAL POWER.

1.4.1: Background.

1.4.1.1: The Status of Tidal Power.

Tidal power involves the construction of barrages across river estuaries to tap into the energies created by the gravitational pull of the moon. This form of alternative energy is not dissimilar to hydro-electric power and yet there are nothing like the same number of projects. Although it is a sustainable form of energy (at least whilst the moon survives), it is not a renewable source of energy. Tidal barrages are often regarded as a natural form of energy even though its energy derives from the moon.

1.4.1.2: The Spread of Tidal Power.

Work starts today on a £40 million barrage on the river Tees in Cleveland. [54] ; "Developers are planning to build 22 tidal power schemes which could affect some of Brutland's most ecologically important estuaries." [55]

1.4.1.3: The Limitations of Tidal Power.

According to sandy irvine, "The fact is that, at the very best, the use of every potential barrage site in the world would supply only one six-hundredth of the world's current energy consumption." [56]

1.4.1.4: The Different Types of Barrage.

There are different types of barrage. Some produce tidal energy, others are used to create marinas. In the over-industrialized nations consumers are buying more and more motorboats. Over the last few decades there has been a rapid growth in the number of marinas to accommodate these boats. Thirdly, there are proposals to construct barrages as sea defence walls to protect urban areas from rises in sea levels brought about by climate change. It is ironic that the construction of barrages to protect cities from flooding could also contribute to global warming and hence boost sea levels.

1.4.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by Tidal Power.

1.4.2.1: Mining.

The mining of the raw materials for the construction of tidal barriers entails the release of greenhouse gases.

1.4.2.2: Processing.

The processing of the raw materials for the construction of tidal barriers entails the release of greenhouse gases.

1.4.2.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of tidal barriers entails the release of greenhouse gases.

1.4.2.4: Construction.

The construction of tidal barriers entails the release of greenhouse gases. This is a one-off boost to global burning.

1.4.2.5: Transportation.

The transportation of the ores needed for the construction of tidal barrages, the transportation of the metals refined by the processing industry to manufacturers, the transportation of barrage equipment to the site of the barrage construction, etc, all entail greenhouse gas emissions.

1.4.2.6: The Operation of Barrages.

The running of tidal energy schemes does not release Carbon emissions. style="mso-spacerun: yes">

1.4.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral Caused by Tidal Power.

1.4.3.1: Mining.

The mining of the raw materials for the construction of tidal barriers involves geophysiological damage to the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.4.3.2: Processing.

The processing of the raw materials for the construction of tidal barriers involves geophysiological damage to the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.4.3.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacturing of tidal barriers involves geophysiological damage to the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.4.3.4: Transportation.

The transportation of the ores needed for the construction of tidal barrages, the transportation of the metals refined by the processing industry to manufacturers, the transportation of barrage equipment to the site of the barrage construction, etc, all involves geophysiological damage to the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.4.3.5: The Destruction of Mudflats.

The construction of tidal barrages permanently inundates, and thereby destroys, tidal marshes/mudflats. It is not known whether or not this reduces the land's Photosynthesis. If there was a reduction it would not be as great as that caused by the creation of water reservoirs by hydro electric power schemes. When mud flats are flooded this decreases the albedo effect which contributes to global burning.

1.4.3.6: Developments.

As is virtually the case with all forms of alternative energy, the main damage they inflict on the Earth's life support system is through the developments they stimulate around the source of the energy.

1.4.4: Conclusions.

Because this form of energy is rare it is difficult to assess its impact on the Earth's Carbon spiral. However, tidal power is a more centralized source of energy than either solar or wind energy. Sandy irvine objects to tidal barrages since they reinforce the centralized supply of energy, "The cost isn't worth it. The crucial extra consideration is that every 'successful' barrage provides positive feedback for the very values and structures in a society which got us into our current mess in the first place." [57] Although tidal barrages seems likely to cause less damage to the environment than hydro-electric power, it is difficult to disagree with the conclusion that, "On our coastline no more .. tidal barrages would be permitted." [58]

FIVE: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY.

1.5.1: The Status of Geothermal Energy.

Geothermal energy is probably the most natural, Earth bound, form of energy. But, it is only a finite source of energy and should thus be avoided.

1.5.2: The Scale of Geothermal Energy.

The potential of geothermal energy is minuscule in comparison to other sources of energy on Earth. The surface of the Earth receives far more heat from the sun than from the Earth's interior, "Sunlight is the only energy source available on Earth. A small flow of heat comes from the Earth's hot interior, but this is less than 1% of the heat received from the Sun." [59] The quantity of energy which gets into the atmosphere from geothermal sources is similarly negligible, "Direct input from geothermal sources such as volcanoes and from our own generation of heat are both negligible." [60]

1.5.3: The Exploitation of Geothermal Energy.

In some places around the Earth hot water is pushed to the surface of the Earth where it could be used to heat homes or generate electricity. In other places geothermal energy can be tapped by drilling down to hot rocks and using them to heat water which, once again, either provides direct heating or the generation of electricity.

There are only a few geothermal power stations around the world. This form of energy is feasible only in a few countries. It is highly unlikely to be a major source of energy in the future. Perversely a proposal for a geothermal power planet on mount Pele in hawaii envisages the destruction of an area of rainforest. The steam pumped up from underground rocks is often polluted. There is little information about the impact of geothermal energy on the Earth's Carbon spiral.

SIX: CHEMICAL ENERGY.

1.6.1: Background.

1.6.1.1: Types of Chemical Energy.

The two main types of chemical energy are batteries and fuel cells both of which have been around for nearly a century and a half. However, whilst batteries have gone into commercial production, fuel cells have never really escaped the laboratory, "Fuel cells had been a laboratory curiosity for a long time. William grove, a london barrister, had invented the first in 1839. [61]

1.6.1.2: Batteries.

1.6.1.2.1: Types of Batteries.

There are lead-acid batteries (used in cars), "Lead is the main constituent of car batteries and it cannot, so far, be eliminated from them." [62]

1.6.1.2.2: Use of Batteries.

Batteries can be used to provide varying degrees of electric current to a vast range of products from torches through to car headlights and, increasingly, driving electric cars.

1.6.1.2.2.1: The Development of Battery Driven Cars.

Some car manufacturers are developing battery powered cars, "Chrysler, ford and general motors have joined forces and will spend $130 million on research co-ordinated by their advanced battery consortium during the next 4 years. The companies were shocked into action in 1990 when california passed a law stating that 2% of new cars sold in the state must be emission free by 1998." [63] The most advanced models today can do 100mph but, after a 60 mile journey, the battery needs recharging - typically taking two to three hours. "The french government is .. installing recharging terminals in every major city by 1995 ... Oslo, Norway .. is currently planning 10,000 electric cars on the roads of norway by 2000 and the authorities are preparing for unlimited parking in the country's city centres. In addition the government is considering dropping duties and taxes on electric vehicles, so the transition from pollution to 'pollution free' motoring will be painless!" [64]

1.6.1.3: Fuel Cells.

Fuel cells are often hailed as one of the most exciting forms of alternative energy. "A fuel cell is a bit of clean technology that doesn't involve burning. In its ideal version, you just rub hydrogen and oxygen together and get water, heat and a lot of electricity. There are now four or five distinct types of fuel cell. (including an alkaline one; a proton exchange membrane [PEM]). In its most basic form, it (a pem) is a piece of clear polymer in a channelled graphite sandwich - channelled to allow the passage of hydrogen or methanol, which contains a lot of hydrogen, to the membrane .. (The system is being promoted by ballard power systems of vancouver, johnson mathey and daimler benz). (Fuel cells are seen as) .. portable power packs in the developing world, reliable local supplies for distant communities .. " [65]

1.6.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral caused by Chemical Energy.

1.6.2.1: Mining.

Pollution would be released by the mining of the metals and chemicals needed for the manufacture of batteries, fuel cells, recharging devices, and all those commodities which are dependent upon batteries e.g. torches.

1.6.2.2: Processing.

The processing of ores and chemicals release pollution.

1.6.2.3: Manufacturing.

The manufacture of batteries, fuel cells and rechargers etc, releases Carbon pollution.

1.6.2.4: Transportation.

The transportation of raw materials to processing factories; the transportation of processed chemicals/metals to manufacturers; the transportation of products from manufacturers to retailing outlets; and the transportation of these products to consumers, all release greenhouse gases.

1.6.2.5: Disposal.

Although batteries/fuel cells do not produce pollution during use, the disposal of these types of energy cause pollution.

1.6.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral caused by Chemical Energy.

1.6.3.1: Mining.

Geophysiological damage is caused by the mining of metals and chemicals for batteries and fuel cells.

1.6.3.2: Processing.

The buildings in which the processing of chemicals and metals takes place destroys the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.6.3.3: Manufacturing.

The factories in which batteries and fuel cells are manufactured destroys the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.6.3.4: Transportation.

The transportation required by this form of energy make a contribution to the destruction of the Earth's life sustaining processes caused by the transportation industry.

1.6.3.5: Disposal.

The disposal of batteries/fuel cells damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.6.4: Conclusions.

A switch from fossil fuels to rechargeable batteries/fuel cells would not necessarily be more environmentally friendly. There might be a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, although this may not necessarily be the case as will be noted below, but it is unlikely there will be a reduction in geophysiological damage.

Just as was the case with other forms of green energy, batteries and fuel cells would enable people to live away from national electricity grids which thus makes it more likely that developments will take place in Wilderness areas in the over-industrialized world and will reinforce village life in the industrializing world.

The more popular that batteries and fuel cells become, the more that the geophysiological damage caused by the manufacture of batteries/fuel cells would have to include the geophysiological damage caused by those commodities relying on batteries/fuel cells.

It has been suggested that rechargers could considerably reduce the manufacture of batteries. "A revolutionary device which recharges normal batteries went on sale yesterday .. could threaten Britain's battery market. Last year around 600 million batteries were sold." [66] However, this makes consumers dependent upon a national electricity grid