1.12: The Destruction of Coastal Ecosystems.

1.12.1: Introduction.

1.12.1.1: Definition.

This work uses the phrase ‘marine coastal ecosystems’ to cover Mangroves, Saltmarshes, Mudflats, Seagrass beds, and Coral reefs, “Saltmarshes are tidal wetlands of temperate zones, mangroves the tropical equivalent; their predominant offshore plants are seagrasses, true flowering plants that bloom beneath the sea."[1]

1.12.1.2: The Photosynthetic Productivity of Coastal Ecosystems.

Some commentators argue the destruction of marine coastal ecosystems is serious because they are believed to be the most productive ecosystems on Earth .. “coastal zones are the most biologically diverse and productive of all ecosystems. For example, of the 13,200 known species of marine fish, almost 80% are coastal.”[2]

Despite the vastness of the oceans, most marine Photosynthesis occurs along coastal areas. The Photosynthetic productivity of coastal areas is due to the nutrients carried down by rivers, "The vastness of the oceans suggests that people cannot harm them. But their biological wealth is concentrated along a relatively narrow strip formed by the continental shelves, coastal margins and estuaries. Here are the major fishing grounds, yielding more than 80% of the world's fishing catch. Here, too, are the seas' most productive and diverse habitats: mangroves, saltmarshes, mudflats, seagrass beds, and coral reefs."[3]; "The four vital ecosystems for humankind and for marine life-forms are saltmarshes, mangroves, estuaries, and coral reefs."[4] As the most productive part of the ocean, coastal zones absorb huge amounts of CO₂. Just how much of that is locked away is disputed.[5] In one of his earliest works, james lovelock argued, "It may be that we can create deserts and dust bowls with comparative impunity but if we devastate the area of the continental shelves through irresponsible bad husbandry in our first attempts at sea farming we shall do so at our peril."[6]; "I find the prospect (of kelp farming) more disturbing than the possible effects of any of the industrial hazards which we have discussed."[7]; "The vital organs of Gaia are not on the land surfaces but in the estuaries, wet lands, and muds on the continental shelves."[8]

1.12.1.3: Sources of Destruction.

Around the world there has been a dramatic reduction in the Photosynthetic capacity of coastal ecosystems. The destruction is caused by a wide range of factors such as pollution; development/tourism; siltation; the dumping of sewage; eutrophication, etc. Any pollution or toxic waste dumped into rivers eventually makes its way to coastal areas.

1.12.1.4: The Global Scale of Coastal Ecosystems.

"Estuaries cover twice the area of saltmarshes and mangroves."[9]; “There are about 300 million hectares (741 million acres) of wetlands including coral reefs, intertidal areas, mangroves, and salt marshes, globally.”[10]

1.12.2: The Destruction of Mangrove Forests.

1.12.2.1: The Nature of Mangrove Forests.

“Mangrove swamps cover some 15.8 million ha worldwide, the largest concentrations being in tropical asia. The name ‘mangrove’ covers any species of tree that can live partly submerged in the relatively salty environment of coastal swamps ...”[11]; “Mangrove Forests are made up of diverse Tree species which thrive in upper tidal zones along flat, sheltered tropical shores. In the mangrove Forest, life abounds. One can find shorebirds, crab-eating monkeys, fishing cats, and mud-skipper fish. The mangroves are the ocean's equivalent of the rain Forest.”[12]

1.12.2.2: The Destruction of Mangrove Forests by the Prawn Industry.

One of the biggest causes of the destruction of mangrove Forests is the prawn industry. Huge numbers of livestock in the over-industrialized world go to restaurants and consume prawn cocktails as a starter before their main meal. Most do not realize the vast ecological destruction caused by the prawn industry, “Mangrove Forests are ideal locations for the establishment of black tiger prawn aquaculture. They are being cleared, and the once self-sustaining waters and land poisoned. Prawn farms made their first appearance along Asia's coasts in the 1970s, beginning their rapid expansion in China, Taiwan and South Korea. The annual growth rate of prawn production averages 25%, mainly in Asia which produces 75% of the world's prawns. Many of these early prawn industries have by now failed or are in the final stages. The ponds are largely abandoned, the once plentiful mangroves devastated. There are prawn farms in Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Ecuador, Panama, Mexico and elsewhere in latin America. The prawn industry is moving to new coasts in Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam, Yemen and Iran. Wherever the industry goes, the mangroves disappear as it moves on from failed pond to new, unspoiled ground. The main defect in prawn aquaculture lies within the pond's waters. Fresh seawater must be pumped regularly into the ponds to keep the prawns healthy. The pond's fouled waters, which contain toxic concentrations of prawn excrement and the chemical additives used in the prawn feed and water treatments, must be pumped out. The problem is, where to place the pond effluents without contaminating surrounding land, ground waters and the coast itself? No adequate solution has been found, and problems with pond effluent are mounting. In time, the ponds poison themselves as the sea water used to recharge them becomes contaminated, weakening prawn production until finally the ponds are closed."[13] Prawn producers make sufficiently large profits so that after abandoning poisoned ponds they are able to shift their operations to new areas and thus continue the ecological devastation. “After more than two decades of rapid growth, shrimp farms produce about a quarter of the 3 million tonnes of shrimps that are consumed worldwide each year. Often mangroves are felled to make way for shrimp ponds, many of which are abandoned after a few years. Shrimp farms in india and other asian countries tend to be small, so farmers rear shrimp at very high densities to maximize their profits. The ponds generate lots of waste, and farmers dose them with antibiotics to stop outbreaks of infectious diseases.”[14] The prawn industry’s .. “export market for intensively farmed prawns is now worth $6.6 billion. Already about half of the world’s mangrove forests have been cut down, many of them in order to accommodate prawn farms. In ecuador for instance, in 1987 120,000 hectares of mangroves have been destroyed for this purpose. In thailand the figure is 100,000 hectares.”[15]

1.12.2.3: The Destruction of Mangrove Forests.

1.12.2.3.1: The Destruction of Mangrove Forests by Country.

Ecuador.

"Of ecuador's original 177,000 hectares of mangroves, as many as 100,000 hectares are now producing Shrimp, most of which are sold to the United States and Japan."[16]; “In ecuador for instance, in 1987 120,000 hectares of mangroves have been destroyed for this purpose (Shrimp pharming).”[17]

Guatemala.

“In the past 30 years Guatemala has lost some 92% of its mangroves, 31% being lost in just 13 years between 1965 and 1978.”[18]

Malaysia.

"Large tracts of mangrove in south east asia have been cut to provide woodchips, especially for the japanese. Sabah, for example, has lost over 122,000 hectares of mangroves (40% of the total mangrove area)."[19]

Philippines.

“More than four-fifths of the philippines’s mangroves were cut down between 1920 and 1988 ...”[20]; "Philippine mangroves have also declined from about 5,000 square kilometres in the 1920s to only 1,400 square kilometres today. More than half of this loss is due to the cutting of mangroves to create culture ponds to rear fish and prawns."[21]; "Mangrove swamps are also being rapidly destroyed, with those in the Philippines decreasing from 146,000 hectares in 1980 to just 38,000 in 1993.”[22]

Thailand.

“Nearly 16,000 tons of prawns were cultured in thailand last year alone, 90% of which were exported, mainly to japan and the u.s., but also to Singapore, Hong Kong, Europe and Canada. In the last 30 years Thailand's total area of mangrove forests has decreased from over 2.1 million rai to 1.12 million rai. A large part of this loss is attributable to the prawn industry.”[23]; “In thailand the figure (for Shrimp pharming) is 100,000 hectares”[24]

General.

.. “the crucial intermediate natural environment between land and sea (i.e. mangrove forests) is being ruined. This is as true in the Arabian Gulf, the coasts of South America, East and West Africa, East and South Asia, as it is in the Caribbean and the South and West Pacific.”[25]; “Overfishing is not the only bane of sea life today. Some 90% (by mass) of marine animals rely on coastal areas such as wetlands, mangrove swamps, or rivers for spawning grounds. But well over half the original area of mangroves in tropical countries has been lost, and in industrial countries, the rate for wetlands loss is just as high. In Italy it is 95%.”[26]

1.12.2.3.2: The Global Destruction of Mangrove Forests.

"Worldwide, approximately 165,000 square kilometres of mangrove remain -

58,000 in Asia,

39,000 in Africa, and

68,000 in the Americas.

Some 58% of the mangroves in Indomalaysia have been lost, often by their conversion into brackish saltwater ponds for raising prawns and fish. In Africa, 55% has been lost."[27]

The scale of the destruction can also be gauged from the scale of the global prawn industry. The prawn industry’s .. “export market for intensively farmed prawns is now worth $6.6 billion. Already about half of the world’s mangrove forests have been cut down, many of them in order to accommodate prawn farms.”[28]; “Shrimp farms have destroyed a million hectares of vital coastal wetlands worldwide, particularly mangrove swamps ..”[29]

1.12.2.4: The Reduction in the Earth's Photosynthetic Capacity.

Not known.

1.12.3: The Destruction of Mudflats.

For the destruction of the Phytomass growing on Mudflats brought about by the construction of barrages or marinas see 1.7.2: Tidal Barrages: The Inundation of Mudflats/Tidal Flats.

1.12.4: The Destruction of Seagrasses.

1.12.4.1: Pollution.

Peru.

“Each year .. peru’s ilo copper mining and smelter operation emits 600,000 tons of sulphur compounds and dumps nearly 40 million cubic metres of tailings containing copper, lead, zinc, aluminium, and traces of cyanides into the sea, harming marine life in a 20,000 hectare area.”[30]

1.12.4.2: Siltation.

As a result of ooman activities such as deforestation, soil erosion, and mining wastes, etc, huge quantities of silt are washed into rivers and eventually coastal areas. This silt suffocates Seagrasses, “Perhaps the most remarkable consequence of all (deforestation is causing vast amounts of silt to be washed into the rivers) is the gigantic shallow building up in the bay of bengal. Caused by the accumulation of sediment during recent years, this shallow, covering some 50,000 square kilometres, will, when it breaks the surface of the sea ...”[31]

1.12.4.3: Dredging.

Dredging for sand in coastal waters also destroys Phytomass growing on the seabed, “The dredging of shipping lanes completely alters the seabed; silt from eroded land damages reefs, smothering the fragile coral; sewage leads to blooms of marine algae which consume all the oxygen in the water.”[32]; “The ecological effects of dredging are various. .. the large quantities of upended silt generated can physically smother plants and animals that live on the river and estuary beds; reduce Photosynthesis through the effects of turbidity; and lead to eutrophication by releasing large quantities of nutrients. The dredged bottom, with its shifting, unstable sediments, is recolonized by fauna and flora only slowly if at all.”[33]

1.12.4.4: Suffocation as a Result of Oil Extraction.

"To extract oil, drillers used to pump oil-based muds into the well to lubricate their bits. These highly toxic substances have seriously reduced all marine life around the rigs for up to 7 kilometres. Toxic muds are now banned in the Norwegian, Danish and Dutch sectors of the north Sea but the UK allows the practice to continue. All other countries insist that oil companies return to land their drilling bits and "cuttings" - what results from the drilling."[34]; “The National Academy of Sciences estimates that drilling a single oil well produces between 1500 and 2000 tons of drilling muds and cuttings most of which is contaminated with hazardous chemicals .. Drilling companies dispose of millions of pounds of these materials by dumping them on the sea floor, suffocating lobsters and other bottom dwelling creatures. Drilling also produces waste water contaminated by oil, grease, cadmium, benzene, lead and radioactive and other hazardous materials. The oil industry discharged 11.5 million barrels of such contaminated waste water into the Gulf of Mexico each day in 1986. Oil drilling also causes air pollution, including nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, and hydrocarbons. The daily air emissions from one exploratory drilling rig are equivalent to those from 7000 cars driving 50 miles ...”[35]; "Oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico have spread drilling waste over a sea bed area bigger than England and Wales. Kilometre radius of drilling waste and oil pollution discovered round the north sea oil rigs' 4. platforms in the Gulf of Mexico: 3,100."[36]; “Around many oil rigs at sea, marine life is virtually absent for some 7 km.”[37]

1.12.4.5: The Destruction of Marine Phytomass by Country.

Mediterranean.

"The disappearance of a type of sea grass from the mediterranean may be as serious as the loss of the amazon rainforest, say environmentalists."[38]

Brutland.

“Licensed by the department of the environment, eight different companies are currently operating 2000 to 8000-ton ships as dredgers on our offshore sandbanks. They extract the sand and gravel as a profitable commercial enterprise, sucking up all the base sediment and the life forms contained, returning a fine choking silt back to the sea. The demand for sand and gravel for the construction industry is enormous in brutland, amounting to 5.5 tonnes of aggregate per person per year. Much of this comes from the sea and 30% of it off the east anglian coastline. Dredged sand was used to construct the huge sizewell nuclear power stations. It is used for the government’s roads programme, 200,000 tonnes being taken for every mile of motorway. Amsterdam schipol airport was built entirely using sand dredged off norfolk. Open cast sea mining for aggregate commenced in 1973 with just 3 million tonnes extracted. By 1992 the annual rate had risen to 18 million tonnes. In 1994 22 million tonnes were taken. A dramatic increase in the rate of coastal erosion occurred in 1982. The major decline in shrimp, fish and crab stocks also correlated to the timing and levels of offshore dredging.”[39]

1.12.5: The Destruction of Coral Reefs.

1.12.5.1: The Nature of Coral Reefs.

1.12.5.1.1: Types of Coral Reef.

“Some reefs kept pace with the sea (as sea levels rose after the last ice age) forming fringing reefs close to the shore. Others, known as barrier reefs, became separated from the land by deep channels formed as the seabed subsided. A third category, atolls, are reefs which have formed on the rim of a sunken volcano, the crater forming the lagoon.”[40]

1.12.5.1.2: The Two Coral Builders.

Coral reefs are built up by two organisms. Polyps which capture food through their tentacles and the Algae in the Polyps which carry out Photosynthesis, “The basic building block of coral is a small organism known as a Coral Polyp. Living inside the cells of the Polyp are countless tiny Algae, known as Zooxanthellae, which utilize minerals in the Polyp’s wastes. Unlike the Polyps, Zooxanthellae are Photosynthesizers and thus able to make sugars using the energy in sunlight. They convert the materials containing nitrogen, phosphorous and also carbon dioxide that the Polyps excrete into oxygen and rich organic matter, which in turn nourish and support the Polyps. Other Algae grow outside the Polyps on the surface of the Reef, as Grass would grow on land, providing plentiful food for fish and other Animals. To protect themselves against predators, the Polyps build up calcium-containing skeletons in which they live and feed. As the coral dies, so the reef grows, the empty skeletons being solidified by the action of bacteria and algae.”[41]; "The Coral polyps secrete their skeletons from their bases. Each is connected with its neighbours by strands that grow laterally. As the colony develops, new polyps form, often on these connecting sections and their skeletons grow over and stifle earlier polyps. So the limestone the colony builds is riddled with tiny cells where polyps once lived. The living ones form only a thin layer on the surface. Each species of coral has its own pattern of budding and so erects its own characteristic monument. They will not grow at depths beyond the reach of sunlight for they are dependent upon single celled algae which grow within their bodies. Coral polyps are each only a few millimetres across but working together in colonies they have produced the greatest animal constructions the world had seen before man (sic) began his labours."[42]

Coral Reefs are home to vast numbers of Fish and invertebrate Animals, some of which help to maintain the Reefs. Some commentators believe that Coral reefs are as significant a home for Wildlife as Rainforests.

1.12.5.2: The Photosynthetic Role of Coral Reefs.

Coral Reefs flourish because of Photosynthetic Algae. Some commentators regard Coral Reefs as a major contributor to the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity, “The world's coral reefs face destruction from global warming that could be worse for the world than the loss of tropical rain forests. Coral reefs perform an equally valuable ecological function in absorbing Carbon gas.”[43]; "Corals, ‘the rainforests of the oceans’, are the oldest ecosystems on the Planet and the largest structures made by living organisms."[44] They extract huge amounts of Carbon from the oceans and thereby moderate the greenhouse effect, "Coral reefs could be absorbing up to half of the Carbon dioxide dissolving into the sea from the atmosphere. If so that makes them at least as important a 'sink' for Carbon as Rainforests. Not only that, Coral reefs do not ultimately release their Carbon back into the air, as Trees do when they die."[45] The huge biodiversity of Coral Reefs also helps to store large amounts of Carbon in the oceans. It is not true, however, that when Coral reefs die they do not release Carbon back into the air. The damage that oomans inflict on Coral reefs often leads to them releasing Carbon into the oceans and, eventually, the atmosphere. Many Coral Reefs are currently being destroyed. At the very least this is decreasing the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity and stopping Carbon from being extracted from the atmosphere.

1.12.5.3: The Global Scale of Coral Reefs.

“It has been calculated that .. “there are 600,000 km² of reefs to a depth of 30m. About

60% of this total occurs in the Indian Ocean region,

14% in the Caribbean,

13% in the south Pacific (including eastern Australia),

12% in the North Pacific (including the Galapagos and west coast of North america).

Coral reefs .. “cover only 0.17% of the ocean floor (an area roughly the size of texas) .. One hundred and nine countries have between them over 100,000 km of reefs ..”[46] Coral reefs are one of the most productive and diverse of all natural systems ...”[47]

1.12.5.4: The Causes of the Destruction of Coral Reefs.

Coral Reefs require plenty of sunlight and clear, unpolluted water. They are the most delicate and easily damaged eco-systems on Earth. But, oomans see them as a valuable resource so there are a plethora of reasons for their destruction.

Siltation.

Deforestation, mining, etc leads to soil erosion. The silt is carried down by rivers and into the sea where it suffocates Coral Reefs, “Meanwhile, the soil (from deforestation), carried into the ocean, smothers mangroves and corals ..”[48]

Dredging.

Dredging also causes Coral destruction, “The dredging of shipping lanes completely alters the seabed; silt from eroded land damages reefs, smothering the fragile coral ...”[49]

Pollution.

Pollution poisons Coral Reefs.

Sewage and Eutrophication.

Nitrate pollution in sewage and washing powders leads to Algal blooms which deoxygenate the water and thus destroy Coral Reefs. .. “sewage leads to blooms of marine algae which consume all the oxygen in the water.”[50]

Despoilation.

Boats dragging their anchors across the sea floor damages Coral Reefs.

Coral Mining.

Coral is broken up by smugglers to be sold for home aquaria.[51] The coral is often removed by the use of dynamite.

Dynamite Fishing.

Dynamite is also used in fishing.

Tourism.

"Tourism is often cited as a motivation for countries to protect their reefs from these various forms of destruction, yet the boom in this industry is also contributing to the degradation of reefs in various areas. In some instances, tourists and divers walk on the reefs, killing coral polyps. Anchors from both small boats and cruise ships can be even more destructive."[52]

Overfishing.

The removal of just one key species is sometimes enough to kill an entire Reef, e.g. the Giant Triton is the chief predator of the Crown of Thorns starfish which feeds exclusively on Coral. The exploitation of the Giant Triton by the shell trade has led to an unprecedented increase in the Crown of Thorns population and this, in turn, has resulted in entire Reefs being literally eaten away. Another critical species is the Cleaner Wrasse, named because it cleans other fish. The exploitation of the Cleaner Wrasse by the aquarium trade has resulted in other Fish either moving away or dying off and this, in turn, has resulted in Reef degradation. The same is happening with black sea urchins, "A highly infectious but mysterious microbe is wiping out black sea urchins in the caribbean and the florida keys, destroying the primary caretaker of the Coral reefs."[53]; “The world’s largest and most pristine coral atoll is threatened with ecological ruin because the british government has failed to protect it. The great chagos bank lies at the heart of the british indian ocean territory, an archipelago administered by the royal navy. Scientists from an official research expedition that visited the bank in 1996 claim that pirate fishing boats from sri lanka have evaded the single british patrol boat and virtually eliminated the atoll’s huge populations of reef sharks and other large predator Fish, such as tuna and groupers. Charles sheppard .. says that the elimination of the predator fish would “cause the collapse of the reef ecosystem”.”[54]

El Nino.

Some commentators believe the warm waters created during el ninos leads to the death of Corals.

In the Wake of El Nino.

Other commentators believe that Corals reefs are destroyed after el ninos have ended, “When el nino ends, cold waters upwell around the pacific’s coral reefs. These waters are rich in nutrients, and so creatures multiply. Among these are the sea urchins and the crown of thorns starfish which eat corals faster than they can multiply: even the atolls of the equatorial pacific are at risk from el nino’s backswing.”[55]

Ultra-violet radiation.

Some commentators suspect that increase in ultra-violet radiation as a result of the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer is damaging Corals.

Global Burning.

For the widespread destruction of coral Reefs brought about by global burning see part four.

General.

"Although it is almost universally illegal, blast fishing still occurs in 40 countries throughout the Pacific, Southeast Asia, the Indian ocean, and, to a lesser extent, the caribbean. Reefs are also mined for building materials. In sri lanka and india, entire sections of reef have been removed to produce cement. Corals themselves are gathered and sold as part of the international trade of reef products. Worldwide, some 1.5 million kilograms of coral are harvested annually. The philippines accounts for more than a third of this, with malaysia, indonesia, new caledonia and fiji supplying another third. Although a portion is sold to tourists domestically, most is exported."[56]; "Whether it is military bases in samoa, indonesia, floor tile manufacturers, betel-nut chewers, anchors dragged across harbours by cruise ships or the french bomb testers at mururoa, coral reefs are raided for their precious contents and ripped to pieces."[57]

1.12.5.5: The Destruction of Coral Reefs.

1.12.5.5.1: The Destruction of Coral Reefs Per Country.

Australia.

“Australia’s great barrier reef is disintegrating because of coral death.”[58]; “The Great Barrier Reef, meant to be one of the most strictly protected natural wonders of the world and a big attraction for British holiday-makers, is dying because of the insatiable Western appetite for prawn cocktails, and a combination of other human activities including tourism, logging and oil mining, scientists have warned. The Australian Conservation Foundation said yesterday that the reef could soon be listed as ''endangered'', after government scientists reported that a combination of trawling, the chemical run-off from land clearing, oil-shale mining, and the effects of coral bleaching caused by global warming are all killing the reef. The Great Barrier Reef is 1,200 miles long (2000km) and some 500 metres thick. It is the most extensive reef system in the world and by far the biggest structure made by living organisms.”[59]

Brutland.

“The world’s largest and most pristine coral atoll is threatened with ecological ruin because the british government has failed to protect it. The great chagos bank lies at the heart of the british indian ocean territory, an archipelago administered by the royal navy. Scientists from an official research expedition that visited the bank in 1996 claim that pirate fishing boats from sri lanka have evaded the single british patrol boat and virtually eliminated the atoll’s huge populations of reef sharks and other large predator Fish, such as tuna and groupers. Charles sheppard .. says that the elimination of the predator fish would “cause the collapse of the reef ecosystem”.”[60]

Caribbean.

“The famous corals of the caribbean ... are in a desperate plight.”[61]

Diego Garcia.

"The most complete and widespread destruction of coral reefs is now conducted by the u.s. military. Diego garcia in the india ocean, once the fertile home of 2,000 people, is now virtually completely covered in concrete, its biological productivity destroyed."[62]

Panama.

“In panama the portobelo area (on the caribbean coast) has had 20-30% deforestation resulting in erosion which has suffocated Corals. First the feeding tentacles or Polps become blocked by the silt so they cannot capture food. And then the cloudy water filters out the sunlight so that the Algae in the Coral body cannot Photosynthesize. Now the corals have lost both ways of obtaining food and eventually they starve to death.”[63] The panama Corals are deteriorating into Coral rubble and every storm breaks up more of the Coral thereby returning its nutrients to the sea.

Philippines.

“In the philippines nine-tenths of the coral has been destroyed by dynamite, pollution and collecting.”[64]

1.12.5.5.2: The Global Destruction of Coral Reefs.

"An analysis done by clive wilkinson of the australian institute of marine science indicates that to date people have directly or indirectly caused the death of 5-10% of the world's living reefs. If current rates of degradation continue, another 30% could be lost in the next 10-20 years, and an additional 30% are in danger of severe deterioration in 30-40 years."[65]; "Forty per cent of the world's coral reefs will be destroyed within 20 years, scientists said at a workshop of the international Coral Reef Initiative in the Philippines last week. Stephen Colwell, executive director of the u.s.-based Coral reef alliance, said that .. "At the current rate of destruction, up to 70% of the world's coral reefs may be killed within our lifetime." Ten per cent of the world's reefs, which cover 234,370 square miles, are already destroyed beyond recovery."[66]; “Around 95% of the world’s coral reefs have been damaged by over-fishing, dynamiting, poisoning, pollution or ships’ anchors, the first global survey has found. Gregor hodgson, co-ordinator of ‘reef check’ ..says .. “The results are very shocking.””[67] What is so revealing here is that scientists could be so naive as to believe, in a world of 6 billion bipeds clamouring for a millionaire's lifestyle, that the vast store of ecological treasures in coral reefs would remain untouched. “One hundred and nine countries have between them over 100,000 km of reefs, and many of these are threatened by a series of natural and human-induced stresses.”[68]; According to unep, “More than half of the world's coral reefs are threatened by human activities, with up to 80 per cent at risk in the most populated areas. While some may yet be saved, it is too late for many others.”[69]; "Despite the critical ecological significance of the world's coral reefs, perhaps second only to tropical rainforests in terms of biodiversity, some 5-10% are already dead and, at current rates of destruction, another 60% are likely to be lost within the next 20-40 years.”[70]; “More than half of the world's coral reefs are threatened by human activities, with up to 80 per cent at risk in the most populated areas. While some may yet be saved, it is too late for many others.”[71]

1.12.5.6: The Reduction in the Earth's Photosynthetic Capacity.

Not known.

1.12.6: The Overall Destruction of Coastal Ecosystems.

1.12.6.1: The General Causes of Coastal Ecosystem Destruction.

"The most significant factor of all is that at least 85% of ocean pollution arises from human activities on land, rather than at sea, and that 90% of these pollutants remain in coastal waters - by far the most biologically productive sector of the oceans."[72]; “Although wetlands are the spawning grounds for most ocean fisheries, also filtering out pollutants, over half have been destroyed by draining, mangrove felling, chemical pollution, and sediment from construction sites. And almost everywhere the coastal waters, by far the most biologically productive, are heavily attacked by agricultural runoffs of pesticides and fertilizers (causing eutrophication), domestic and industrial sewage, toxic waste, oil.”[73]

1.12.6.2: The Destruction of Coastal Ecosystems by Country.

United States of America.

"The destruction of marine habitats is most serious in coastal zones. Coastal cities often look to nearby wetlands as a cheap way to dispose of rubbish, from industrial refuse to household garbage. Equally damaging is the dredging of offshore sand and gravel that destroys fish-spawning grounds. Along u.s. coasts, dredging, together with filling operations, has eliminated more than 20,000 square kilometres of valuable wetlands. More than a quarter of u.s. important coastal wetlands has been lost. Of 80,000 square kilometres of u.s. estuarine waters, one-third is now closed to shell-fishing because of habitat disruption."[74]; “According to e.p.a. estimates, erosion, inundation and salt water intrusion could reduce the area of present day u.s. coastal wetlands up to 80% if current projections of future global sea level are realized.”[75]

1.12.6.3: The Global Destruction of Coastal Ecosystems.

There is no overall estimate for the scale of the destruction of coastal ecosystems. It has been stated, “Overfishing is not the only bane of sea life today. Some 90% (by mass) of marine animals rely on coastal areas such as wetlands, mangrove swamps, or rivers for spawning grounds. But well over half the original area of mangroves in tropical countries has been lost, and in industrial countries, the rate for wetlands loss is just as high. In Italy it is 95%.”[76]; “The current global loss of wetlands amounts to 3 million to 6 million hectares (7.4 - 14.8 million acres) annually. There are about 300 million hectares (741 million acres) of wetlands including coral reefs, intertidal areas, mangroves, and salt marshes, globally. They are being lost to human development as well as sea-level rise, a cause for concern because of the biodiversity implications. Professor Pier Vellinga warns that the loss of biological diversity can in principle have major impacts on the global biogeochemical system.”[77]

1.12.6.4: The Reduction in the Earth's Photosynthetic Capacity.

No figures. Coastal ecologies are the most productive part of the ocean and absorb huge amounts of CO₂, "Just how much of that it locks away is the subject of much debate."[78]