1.13: The Destruction of Oceanic Phytomass.

1.13.1: The Paucity of Oceanic Photosynthesis.

As has been pointed out earlier, most Photosynthetic activity in the sea occurs along coastal areas rather than in the middle of the oceans. Stephen drury believes the oceans are not Photosynthetically active, “So very little iron enters the oceans today. .. that is one reason why modern oceans far from land are biologically unproductive.”[1] The most productive parts of the world's oceans are in areas where there is an upwelling of cold water containing large amounts of nutrients, "These two categories of plankton (the Phytoplankton and the zooplankton) are so abundant that they are estimated to generate, respectively, 16 billion and 1.6 billion tonnes of carbon each year. Feeding off the plankton is an array of larger creatures, with an annual productivity of around 160 million tonnes. These species, especially the prolific herring family, supply us with two-fifths of our fish. By contrast, fish that eat other fish, such as members of the cod family, generate only about 16 million tonnes of carbon a year, and supply us with about one-eighth of the fish we eat."[2] Peter bunyard suggests, “The continued function of the oceans as a net sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide is of critical importance for a stable climate.”[3]

1.13.2: Pollution.

Although the overwhelming proportion of anthropogenic pollution is released on land. a substantial proportion of it ends up in the oceans either as a result of being blown around the Earth or leeching into rivers and then into coastal waters.

1.13.3: Ultra-Violet Radiation.

It is believed the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer damages Phytoplankton, “Ozone depletion would (suppress Photoplankton activity) thus enhance the greenhouse effect by reducing the capacity of the oceans to act as a sink for Carbon dioxide. Unep estimates that a 10% loss of marine Photoplankton would reduce the oceans’ annual uptake of Carbon dioxide by 5gt - an amount which equals the annual anthropogenic emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels.”[4]; “The photosynthesis and growth of phytoplankton, which form the lowest link of the food chain, have decreased by as much as 20% near the surface of the Antarctic waters - and the surface is where most marine growth and reproduction takes place.”[5]

More recently it has been reported, “The impact of ozone holes on plankton in the arctic and southern oceans may be much greater than anyone thought. Scientists at the university of plymouth have found that the reproductive cells of algae are several times as sensitive to ultraviolet radiation as mature cells. This means that ozone holes may seriously stunt the growth of marine plankton, the base of the ocean’s food chain. A team led by britt cordi .. concludes that because past studies have ignored the early life of the algae, “the ecological significance of elevated uv-b exposure in the marine environment may be seriously underestimated.” Past monitoring of plankton in the southern ocean has measured plankton loss of between 6-12% when ozone levels are low. But the new findings suggest that the ecological impact could be greatest at particular times in the spring, during the so-called ‘blooms’ when plankton reproduction is at its most intense.”[6]

1.13.4: Suffocation.

1.13.4.1: The Dumping of Sewage Sludge at Sea.

The dumping of sewage sludge at sea suffocates Phytomass on the sea bed .. “East 106 (was) a government-sanctioned sludge disposal site 106 miles east of cape may, new jersey. Ocean dumping of sewage by the u.s. .. ended in june 1992.”[7]; “The 9 million tonnes of sewage from new york and new jersey dumped each year have degraded all marine life over a horrifying 12,000 sq km.”[8]

1.13.4.2: Oil Spills.

When oil is accidentally, or deliberately, flushed into the sea it poisons Phytoplankton and Plant life. Sometimes the oil lays like a blanket over the surface of the ocean reducing the sunlight reaching Plants on the ocean floor. Sometimes the oil sinks suffocating all Vegetation on the ocean floor. Each of these three effects reduces the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity and thus increases the greenhouse effect.

The Scale of Oil Pollution on the Oceans.

It has been alleged that, "At any given time 7 billion gallons of oil are floating on the world's waters."[9]

Oil Rigs.

Suffocation is also caused by the pollutants released by oil rigs, “Around oil rigs out at sea, marine life is virtually absent for some 7 km due to oil and other pollution.”[10]

Amoco Cadiz.

It takes a long time for the corrosive power of the sea to dissolve and disperse oil spills and, as a result, "Oil spills threaten marine life long after the event. Even now the remnants of pollution from the Amoco Cadiz, wrecked in March 1978, are interfering with the reproduction of fish around the coast of Brittany."[11]

1.13.4.3: The Dumping of Waste Ash at Sea.

Huge quantities of ash from coal-fired power stations have been dumped at sea. This suffocates Vegetation on the sea bed creating underwater deserts.

1.13.5: Trawling.

Marine Plants are damaged by oceanic trawling, “Some forms of fishing are the marine equivalent of forest clear-felling, devastating natural habitats on the seabed, say marine ecologists. Trawls and dredges leave a swathe of destruction, says leslie watling, a marine biologist .. In some waters, fishing is so intensive that each hectare of seabed is on average trawled in its entirety seven times per year.”[12]

1.13.6: The Global Destruction of Oceanic Phytomass.

There is no estimate of the damage to oceanic Vegetation.

1.14: The Destruction of Photosynthesizing Micro-organisms.

This work is concerned with oomans’ destruction of the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity. The focus, so far, has been on Plants. There are, however, other Photosynthesizers that need to be considered i.e. micro-organisms, Fungi and even, surprisingly enough, Animals. Unfortunately there is no commonly accepted name for micro-organic Photosynthesizers - the names given to them depend on an author's classification of the Earth’s life-forms. The categorization used here follows that outlined by lynn margulis. This section looks at oomans’ destruction of micro-organic Photosynthesizers whilst succeeding sections look at the destruction of Photosynthesizing Fungi and Animals. Part two explores the way that oomans have boosted the numbers of micro-organic Photosynthesizers.

1.14.1: Introduction.

1.14.1.1: Distinguishing Protoctista from other Forms of Life.

Lynn Margulis.

Most scientists distinguish between prokaryotes (micro-organisms with no nucleated cell) and eukaryotes (organisms with nucleated cells). Lynn margulis has argued that the main prokaryotes are bacteria and the four main types of eukaryotes are Protoctista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals. This creates a five kingdom classification of life forms on Earth, “The protoctists, about 250,000 species, are mute and powerless. The Protoctista constitute a fifth kingdom alongside plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. Protoctists consist of the nucleated cells (eukaryotes) lying outside the fungi, plants and animals.”[13]; “Protoctists - all the eukaryotes that are neither Animals, plant, nor fungi - include ciliates, amoebae, malarial parasites, slime molds, plankton, seaweeds and a single-celled photosynthetic swimming microbe such as euglena. While most are harmless, protoctists cause many tropical diseases (chagas disease, giardiasis, malaria, and african sleeping sickness), red tides, and major crop and Animal infestations.”[14]

Peter H Raven, Linda R Berg and George B Johnson

Peter h raven, linda r berg, and george b johnson, seem to follow margulis’s classification but change the uncomfortable name of ‘Protoctists’ for ‘protista’, “The five kingdoms of life - prokaryotes, protista, fungi, plants and animals .."[15] "Algae were orginally classified as Plants. Most biologists classify Algae as Protists rather than as Plants .. ."[16]

1.14.1.2: The Variety and Numbers of Micro-organisms.

The two main types of micro-organism are prokaryotes and protoctista. They live in every habitat on Earth whether in water, muds, the bodies of Plants/Animals, volcanic vents, or on land. According to tyler volk, “Today such microbial terrestrial communities inhabit the deserts in places where plants cannot live. These ‘cryptogamic’ microbial crusts are essential agents that hold thin soils against erosion. .. the surface temperature of the Earth in the earliest days of land life, though hot by our standards, was nevertheless significantly cooler than the hell it would have been without this microbial crust.”[17]

There are a vast number of species in both categories. “An estimated 250,000 species (of Protoctista) exist, most of which have been studied hardly at all.”[18]; “Estimates suggest that there are between 2.7 and 16 million species of algae, bacteria and fungi; only 175,000 have been identified.”[19] New species are being discovered all the time, “The fact that the biggest cause of food poisoning - the poultry-infecting campylobacter - was not even known about until the seventies is just accepted with our customary british phlegm.”[20] Micro-organisms make up a significant proportion of biomass, “Micro-organisms make up one fifth of the global biomass, the same proportion as animals (the rest is plants). The human body, as measured by dry weight, is 10% bacteria.”[21]

1.14.1.3: Photosynthesizing Micro-organisms.

1.14.1.3.1: Photosynthesizing Prokaryotes.

The first Photosynthesizers were prokaryotes. Although there are now a large number of different Photosynthesizers they all stem from the first prokaryotes. The non-prokaryotic Photosynthesizers are basically organisms which have absorbed Photosynthesizing prokaryotes and co-habit with them in a symbiotic relationship. What this seems to suggest is that it isn’t Plants that carry out Photosynthesis so much as the prokaryotes that have become a part of the Plants' structure .. “green photosynthesizing microbes called cyanobacteria .. resisted digestion inside larger living cells and continuing to photoynthesize. From partly digested cyanobacterium and a hungry translucent swimmer, a new individual, the alga, evolved. From green algal cells (protoctists) came the cells of plants.”[22]

List of Photosynthesizing Prokaryotes.

Cyanobacteria.

1.14.1.3.2: The Photosynthesizing Protoctists.

Some Protoctista are Photosynthesizers, “Familiar protocists include amoebae, euglenas, ciliates, diatoms, red seaweeds, and all other algae, slime molds, and water molds. Unfamiliar protoctists have strange names: foraminifera, heliozoa, ellobiopsids and xenophyophores.”[23]

One of the most pervasive Photosynthesizers is Phytoplankton, otherwise known as Algae. It has been pointed out that .. “nearly all phytoplankton are protoctists ..”[24] In the oceans they live in the surface waters, "Being dependent on sunlight, Photoplankton flourish in a thin layer at the surface of the ocean, a biosphere that extends downwards for 100 metres at most."[25] They .. "range from single cells to seaweeds well over 50m in length."[26] The Photosynthesizers responsible for Coral Reefs are Algae, “Polyps .. are dependent upon single celled algae which grow within their bodies."[27]

List of Photosynthesizing Protocists.

euglenas,

ciliates,

diatoms - “Diatoms fix Carbon but produce little dimethyl sulphide (DMS).”[28]

red seaweeds,

algae,

pfieesteria - “First discovered in 1991 .. In its predatory stage, the algae poisons Fish with a mysterious toxin, then eats its prey, leaving behind telltale red and black sores.”[29]

slime molds,

Phaeocystis pouchetti - a marine plankton algae.[30]

water molds,

Gonyaulax - a toxic algae.[31]

foraminifera,

Phaeocystis - an Algae “Phaeocystis absorbs Carbon and produces DMS.”[32]

heliozoa,

ellobiopsids,

Coccolithophores - an Algae “Coccolithophores produce DMS but release CO₂.”[33]

xenophyophores

1.14.1.4: The Vital Role Played by the Earth’s Micro-organisms.

Prokaryotes are the origins of all life forms on Earth. They were also the first Photosynthesizers on Earth. According to james lovelock, over the aeons micro-organisms have played the biggest part in the Earth's life support system and have had the biggest impact on the Earth’s climate.[34] Tim radford concludes, “What happens (climatically) may depend upon how the oceans work and what role the Plankton play. The tiniest creatures in the sea, Plankton, may decide the fate of the globe.”[35]

1.14.1.5: The Scale of Photosynthesis carried out by Algae.

The scale of Photosynthesis carried out by Algae is significant, “Algae process approximately half of the Earth’s supply of Carbon ..”[36]; “It has been estimated that 40% of the Carbon fixed by Photosynthesis on the Earth is carried out by Algae and Cyanobacteria, especially those in oceans and seas.”[37]; "These two categories of Plankton (the Photoplankton and the zooplankton) are so abundant that they are estimated to generate, respectively, 16 billion and 1.6 billion tonnes of Carbon each year."[38]

Algae are prolific in the oceans. They are dependent upon sunlight and their rate of Photosynthesis increases as the oceans warm up. However, as will be explored in more detail later, their growth is also determined by the availability of nutrients - most of which derive from cooler waters rising from the ocean floor, “Algae can grow well in warm waters where there is an ample supply of nutrients, but such favoured regions tend to be small in area, and where nutrient rich cold water upwells along the edges of the continents”[39] As a consequence, Algae tend to be prolific in the arctic ocean .. “early blooms of the diatoms powerfully draw down Carbon dioxide from the air and so cool the planet. Diatoms are those intricately varied microscopic Algae with skeletons sculpted in opal.”[40]

1.14.2: The Anthropogenic Destruction of Algae.

Oomans destroy Algae in a number of ways.

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.

See section: 1.13.2: Ultra-Violet Radiation.

Acid Rain.

It is suspected that acid rain damages Phytoplankton, "One of the major effects of acid rain on ecosystems has been the gradual acidification of streams, rivers, and lakes, often with devastating effects on the fauna. A ph of 6.0 is the critical level, below this animal life begins to be affected. The exact processes involved are complex but one of the most serious is the higher concentrations of heavy toxic metals at lower ph levels ... In water with a ph of 5.5 salmon are affected and molluscs are rare. Between 5.5 and 5.0 there is severe damage to eggs and larvae and snails cannot survive below a ph of 5.2. Fish cannot live much below a ph of 5.0 and at a level of 4.5 even the flora is badly affected."[41]

Oil Suffocation.

When oil is flushed into the sea, whether accidentally or deliberately, it blankets the surface thereby reducing the sunlight reaching Photoplankton. It has been alleged that, "At any given time 7 billion gallons of oil are floating on the world's waters."[42]; "Most of the oil in the oceans comes not from accidents but from municipal and industrial run off, the cleaning of ships bilges and other routine activities."[43]

Pollutants.

Photoplankton are poisoned by pollutants.

Pesticides.

Pesticides poison Photosynthesizing micro-organisms. It is impossible to determine what damage is being done to such Photosynthesizers but it is likely to be considerable given the scale of pesticide production, "Since 1945 pesticide production has become a major industry - use has increased 33 fold and is still rising at about 12% a year. The first highly toxic pesticides were organochlorines such as DDT, followed after the early 1950s by organophosphates."[44]; .. “nearly half a billion pounds of pesticides .. are spread or sprayed onto farmers’ fields each year in the u.s. The figures are higher for western europe.”[45]; “At the time Rachel Carson was writing Silent Spring in the early 60s, American production of active pesticides was some 637,666,000 pounds. By 1986, production for the same range of products she indicted had risen to 1.5 billion pounds. If wood preservatives, disinfectants and sulphur were added, the figure for 1988 usage in the USA was 2.7 billion pounds. The global total was some 6 billion pounds drenching the Earth each year.”[46]; “In 1990, u.s. pesticide manufacturers exported over 465 million pounds of pesticides, and of those, 52 million pounds were banned, restricted, or unregistered for use in the u.s.”[47]; “With the massive expansion in the availability and use of chemicals throughout the world, exposure to pesticides, heavy metals, small particulates and other substances pose an increasing threat to the health of humans and their environment. Pesticide use causes 3.5 to 5 million acute poisonings a year. Worldwide, 400 million tonnes of hazardous waste are generated each year. About 75 per cent of pesticide use and hazardous waste generation occurs in developed countries. Despite restrictions on toxic and persistent chemicals such as DDT, PCBs and dioxin in many developed countries, they are still manufactured for export and remain widely used in developing countries. Efforts are under way to promote cleaner production, to limit the emissions and phase out the use of some persistent organic pollutants, to control waste production and trade, and improve waste management.”[48]; “In 1990, u.s. pesticide manufacturers exported over 465 million pounds of pesticides, and of those, 52 million pounds were banned, restricted, or unregistered for use in the u.s.”[49]; “With the massive expansion in the availability and use of chemicals throughout the world, exposure to pesticides, heavy metals, small particulates and other substances poses an increasing threat to the health of humans and their environment. Pesticide use causes 3.5 to 5 million acute poisonings a year. Worldwide, 400 million tonnes of hazardous waste are generated each year. About 75 per cent of pesticide use and hazardous waste generation occurs in developed countries. Despite restrictions on toxic and persistent chemicals such as DDT, PCBs and dioxin in many developed countries, they are still manufactured for export and remain widely used in developing countries. Efforts are under way to promote cleaner production, to limit the emissions and phase out the use of some persistent organic pollutants, to control waste production and trade, and improve waste management.”[50]

The Destruction of Forests.

The destruction of Forests eventually leads to a reduction in Phytoplankton. Forests are responsible for chemical weathering. Chemical weathering liberates nutrients in the soils and these are washed into the oceans where they stimulate the growth of Phytoplankton. This is deemed to be the main source of nutrients for Phytoplankton. Deforestation leads to a reduction in the nutrients leeching through the soil and into the seas.

The Destruction of Peatlands.

It is believed the same process also occurs as a result of the destruction of Peatlands. The destruction of Peatlands leads to a reduction in chemical weathering and thus the nutrients being washed into the sea, “Destroy peatlands and coastal fisheries will collapse .. Lee klinger claims that the iron rich run-off from peatlands is essential for maintaining high biological productivity in coastal waters. Previous studies have shown that streams and rivers that drain peat bogs carry high concentrations of iron in a highly soluble form. The availability of iron in oceans affects the growth of phytoplankton and bacteria on which fish feed, but most parts of the ocean have only limited concentrations of the metal. They found that oceanic productivity was highest in areas of the north atlantic and north pacific that were adjacent to extensive areas of peatlands in alaska, britain, scandinavia and siberia. They also found highly productive areas near the mouths of the amazon and congo rivers and close to malaysia and indonesia, all of which are fed by large peatlands. Klinger points to several coastal fisheries that have collapsed since the destruction of neighbouring peatlands. The most significant is the sardine fishery at monterey bay in california, which was abandoned in 1952 after stocks pummeted. Similarly the decline of salmon stocks around the english coast may be partly due to the virtual eradication of the countries peat bogs.”[51]

Exotic Predation.

Oomans are also responsible for reducing Phytoplankton numbers by boosting the species which predate on them, "In 1982, an American visitor - a jellyfish-like organism called a Ctenophore, or Comb Jelly - arrived somewhere in the black sea. Carried there in the ballast of a ship, the Ctenophore quickly became established because it had an ample food supply (microscopic plankton) and no natural predators in its new environment. As its numbers increased, it consumed so much Plankton that larger fish were deprived of their food supply. The Ctenophore's success has all but eliminated commercially important fish from the black sea. Fish catches, once an important part of the local russian economy, have declined dramatically since the late 1980s. Marine biologists think the establishment of Ctenophores in the black sea is one of the most devastating invasions to occur on Earth in the past 50 years."[52]

Conclusion.

The scale of the damage inflicted on Photosynthesizing micro-organisms is unknown.

1.15: The Destruction of Photosynthetic Fungi.

The Earth’s main Photosynthesizers are prokaryotes, protoctista, and Plants. Lynn margulis believes that some Fungi are Photosynthesizers. Mary, and geoff, jones disagree, “All fungi are heterotrophic and never contain chloroplasts.”[53] Unfortunately, no information has been found on such Photosynthesizers.

There are vast numbers of Fungi, “Bacteria have about as much weight in carbon atoms as all the animals put together, and fungi have about half that amount.”[54] Tom wakford believes that, ."Lichens cover the same amount of the Earth’s surface as tropical rainforest.”[55] Even if Fungi is not directly involved in Photosynthesis it plays a crucial role in providing nutrients to Photosynthesizing plants, “Over 80% of flowering plants live in symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi.”[56] Trees have a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizal fungi. The roots of trees .. “penetrate deep into the soil and subsoil. But they do not operate alone, and special fungi, called mycorrhizae, live in close symbiotic association with the root systems of healthy trees, as well as other plants. The fungi accelerate weathering around them and, helped by the mild acid solution of carbon dioxide, are able to mine the subsoil and even the bedrock for minerals. They then form bridges through which they pass on essential nutrients such as phosphorus, that they have made available.”[57]

1.16: The Destruction of Photosynthetic Animals.

According to mary, and geoff, jones, “Animals are heterotrophic organisms and never possess chloroplasts.”[58] Lynn margulis disagrees, “Photosynthetic animals are well known (for example, elysia, Plachobranchus, convoluta roscoffensis ..).”[59] Unfortunately, no information has been found on such Photosynthesizers.