ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
Christianism was founded in Palestina as an offshoot of Judaism in the 1st century. It rapidly spread over large parts of Northern Africa, the Near East and Europe and by the 4th century it had become the leading religion in the Roman Empire and in some other states like Armenia, Axum and Georgia. While the Christian church in the East - in the Eastern Roman Empire, in Armenia, in Nubia, etc. - later split into independent "national churches", the church in the West - named Roman Catholic or Latin Church - at first largely maintained its dogmatic, ritual and structural unity and gradually became the leading religion in Western, Central and Northern Europe, despite some troubled periods. (1) This period of unity and supremacy lasted until the 16th century when the writings and works of men like Martin Luther (1483 - 1546), Jean Calvin (1509 - 1564) and others led to the creation of different "Protestant" Churches (Anglican, Lutheran and Reformed) ending the authority and the teaching of Rome in the British Isles, in Scandinavia and in large parts of Central Europe. But this loss of influence and territories in Europe was however compensated by a simultaneous extension of the religion in newly colonized territories in America. In the 19th century a second important wave of missionary work expanded the faith in the non-Chirstian areas of Africa, Asia and Oceania, while at the same time the Church also (re)gained some importance in the "Protestant" countries of Europe and in the new Anglo-Saxon states of America and Oceania. (2) Seeg here for the central administration and here for the regional organization (1) Among the periods of quarrels and contestation were : - the Cathar (or Albigensian) religious movement (11th - 14th centuries) - the Great Western Schism (1378 - 1418), when the Church had two Popes - the Hussite national and religious movement (1414 - 1436) (2) The 19th century also saw the last major split in the Church. It occured when some communities - sometimes already in conflict with Rome for other reasons - rejected the dogma of Papal Infallibility as promulgated by the first Vatican Council (1870). These communities now became known as the Old Catholic Churches.PAPAL STATES
See also ROMAN CATHOLIC HIERARCHY OF THE PAPAL STATES 1848 - 1870
THE PAPAL STATES UNTIL 1849
[NC) = Non Clerical Officials] Although the Popes had already acquired extended tracts of land in Italy since the 4th century and although they had already acquired some political power in those parts of Italy which were formally still part of the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th century, they only really became sovereign temporal rulers in 756 when Pippin, King of the Franks (714 - 768,r. 751 - 768), ceded to them some territories he had conquered on the Lombards during his Italian campaigns. In the course of the following centuries the Popes gradually extended their rule over other regions and by the 18th century the Papal States covered most of Central Italy and part of Northern Italy. (1) Except for periods of indirect or direct French rule in the years 1796 - 1814, the frontiers then remained largely unchanged until the Sardinian intervention. (2) (1) The territorial formation of the Papal States ended in 1649 when the Duchy of Castro was conquered. (2) The northern parts of the Papal States became successively part of : - the Cispadane Republic (1796 - 1797) - the Cisalpine Republic (1797 - 1799 and 1800 - 1802) - the Italian Republic (1802 - 1805) - the Kingdom of Italy (1805 - 1814) The southern parts : - formed the Roman Republic (1798 - 1799) - were annexed to France (1809 - 1814) With the exception of a small frontier tract north of the Po river - added to the new Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom - the Papal States were restored within their frontiers of before 1796 in 1814. __________________________________________________________________________________HEADS OF STATE
754 - 1849 The Popes SUPREME ADMINISTRATORS OF THE PAPAL STATES AFTER THE DEPARTURE INTO EXILE OF THE POPE (NOV 1848 - FEB 1849) 1848 Nov 16 : Radical liberal agitators - claiming a constitution and the participation of the Papal States in the so-called "War of Italian Liberation" against the Austrians - seized power and formed a government headed by Muzzarelli (s.b.). Pope Pius IX (1792 - 1878, r. 1846 - 1878) considered himself a prisoner in his Vatican Palace. Nov 24 : The Pope fled to Gaeta in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Nov 27 : Pope Pius IX declared the Muzzarelli government illegal and entrusted the administration of the Papal States to a Governmental Commission. Dec 11 : Negociations to reach a compromise with the Pope having failed, the Roman Assembly entrusted supreme power to a Provisional and Supreme State Junta for the duration of the Pope's absence (not recognized by the Pope). Dec 29 : The two remaining members of the provisional Junta and the members of the Council of Ministers united to form a Supreme State Junta. 1849 Jan .. : After the resignation of the members of the first Junta (on Jan 03), the Council of Ministers became the Provisional Government Commission Governmental Commission (Nov 27 1848 - ...) (3) Commissione Governativa 1848 - 18.. -Castruccio Castracane Degli Antelminelli, Cardinal Bishop of Palestrina (Chairman) 1779 - 1852 -Francesco Barberini-Colonna, Principe di Palestrina 1772 - 1853 -Carlo, Marchese Bevilacqua 1805 - 1875 -Giacomo, Marchese Ricci -Roberto Giovanni Roberti 1788 - 1867 -Maffeo Colonna Barberini di Sciarra, Principe di Carbognano, Principe di Roviano, Duca di Bassanello, Duca di Nerola, etc, etc 1771 - 1849 -LtGen. Carlo, Barone Zucchi 1777 - 1863 Provisional and Supreme State Junta (Dec 11 1848 - Dec 29 1848) Provvisoria e Supreme Giunta di Stato 1848 -Tommaso, Principe Corsini, Duca di Civitella, Duca di Casigliano, Marchese di Lajatico e Orciano, etc (until Dec 29 1848) (NC) 1767 - 1856 -Francesco, Conte Camerata (NC) -Giuseppe Galletti (NC) Supreme State Junta (Dec 29 1848 - Jan .. 1849) Suprema Giunat di Stato 1848 - 1849 -Francesco, Conte Camerata (NC) s.a. -Giuseppe Galletti (NC) s.a. -Carlo Emmanuele Muzzarelli, President of the Council of Ministers, Minister of Foreign Affairs and of Public Instruction -Pompeo, Conte Di Campello (NC), Minister of the Arms 1803 - 1884 -Carlo Armellini (NC), Minister of the Interior and Police 1777 - 1863 -Federico Galeotti (NC), Minister of Grace and Justice -Livio Mariani (NC), Minister of Finance -Pietro Sterbini (NC), Minister of Commerce, Fine Arts, Public Wirks, etc 1795 - 1863 Provisional Government Commission (Jan .. 1849 - Feb 09 1849) Commissione provvisoria di Governo 1849 - 1849 -Carlo Emmanuele Muzzarelli s.a. -Pompeo, Conte Di Campello (NC) s.a. -Carlo Armellini (NC) s.a. -Federico Galeotti (NC) s.a. -Livio Mariani (NC) s.a. -Pietro Sterbini (NC) s.a. (3) The Commission seem to have existed on paper only : -Castracane asked for further instructions and then simply waited , -The Principi of Palestrina and of Carbognano refused the assignment and left Rome, -The Marchesi Bevilacqua and Ricci did not refuse but never came to Rome, -Roberti was present in Rome but didn't leave his home, while Zucchi seems to have joined the Pope in Gaeta. __________________________________________________________________________________MINISTERS
There was not always a clear distinction between the administration of the Church and that of the Papal States until 1847 when - as a result of liberal agitation - modern pontifical ministries were created out of pre-existing offices of the Holy Roman Church. [(M) = a member of the Muzzarelli government] Presidents of the Council of Ministers Presidenti del Consiglio dei Ministri 1847 - 1848 Cardinal Secretary of State Gabriele Ferretti, Cardinal Priest with the title of Santi Quirico e Giulitta, also Minister of Foreign Affairs 1795 - 1860 1848 Cardinal Secretary of State Giuseppe Bofondi, Cardinal Deacon of San Cesareo in Palatio, also Minister of Foreign Affairs 1795 - 1867 1848 Cardinal Secretary of State Giacomo Antonelli, Cardinal Deacon of Santa Agata alla Suburra,, also Minister of Foreign Affairs 1806 - 1876 1848 Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Ciacchi, Cardinal Deacon of San Angelo in Pescheria, also Minister of Religious Foreign Affairs 1788 - 1865 1848 Cardinal Secretary of State* Antonio Francesco Orioli, Cardinal Priest with the title of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, also Minister of Religious Foreign Affairs 1778 - 1852 1848 Cardinal Secretary of State Giovanni Soglia Ceroni, Cardinal Priest with the title of Santi Quattri Coronati, Archbishop of Osimo and Cingoli, also Minister of Religious Foreign Affairs 1779 - 1856 De facto political heads of the Ministry (since the presidency of Orioli) 1848 Terenzio, Conte Mamiani Della Rovere, Minister of the Interior (NC) 1799 - 1885 1848 Odoardo, Conte Fabri, Minister of the Interior (NC) 1778 - 1853 1848 Pellegrino Luigi, Conte Rossi, Minister of the Interior (NC) 1787 - 1848 1848 - 1849 Carlo Emmanuele Muzzarelli (M) s.a. Ministers of Foreign Affairs Ministers of Foreign Affairs Ministri degli Affari Esteri (the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was created out of the Secretariat of State of the Roman Church) 1847 - 1848 The Presidents of the Council of Ministers s.a. 1848 : Ministry divided into : - the Ministry of Religious Foreign Affairs - the Ministry of Civil Foreign Affairs Ministers of Religious Foreign Affairs Ministri degli Affari Esteri Ecclesiastici 1848 The Presidents of the Council of Ministers s.a. Ministers of Civil Foreign Affairs Ministri degli Affari Esteri Civili 1848 Giovanni, Conte Marchetti (NC) 1790 - 1852 1848 Odoardo, Conte Fabri (NC) s.a. 1848 Pellegrino Luigi, Conte Rossi (NC) s.a. 1848 : The Ministry of Religious Foreign Affairs was abolished. The Ministry of Civil Foreign Affairs became the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Ministers of Foreign Affairs Ministri degli Affari Esteri 1848 Terenzio, Conte Mamiani Della Rovere (NC)(M) s.a. 1848 - 1849 Carlo Emmanuele Muzzarelli* (M) s.a. Ministers of Defence Ministers of the Arms Ministri delle Armi (the Ministry of the Arms was the continuation of the pre-existing Presidency of the Arms) 1847 - 1848 Giovanni Rusconi 1848 Gen. Pompeo Principe Gabrielli (della Regola) (NC) 1780 - 1861 1848 Camillo Principe Aldobrandini, Principe di Meldola, Duca di Carpineto, Duca di Sarsina, Signore di Maenza, di Gavignano, di Caminate, etc. (NC) 1816 - 1902 1848 Filippo Andrea Principe Doria Pamphili Landi, Principe di Melfi, Principe del Sacro Romano Impero, Principe di Santo Stefano d’Aveto e Torriglia, etc, etc. (NC) 1813 - 1876 1848 Francesco Comte Lovatelli* (NC) 1808 - 1856 1848 Pompeo, Conte Di Campello (NC) s.a. 1848 Mario Massimo di Rignano, Duca di Rignano a Calcata, Marchese di Ortona e Carreto* (NC) 1808 - 1873 1848 - 1849 Pompeo Conte Di Campello (2x) (NC) (M) Ministers of the Interior and of Police Ministers of the Interior Ministri dell'Interno (the Ministry of the Interior was created out of the Secretariat of State of the Roamn Church) 1847 - 1848 Camillo Amici 1848 Francesco Pentini 1797 - 1869 1848 Gaetano, Conte Recchi (NC) 1797 - 1856 1848 Terenzio, Conte Mamiani Della Rovere (NC) s.a. 1848 Odoardo, Conte Fabri (NC) s.a. 1848 Pellegrino Luigi, Conte Rossi (NC) s.a. 1848 Giuseppe Galletti (NC) (M) s.a. 1848 - 1849 Carlo Armellini (NC) (M) s.a Minister of Police Ministri di Polizia (the Ministry of Police was created out of the Governorate of Rome) 1847 - 1848 Domenico Savelli 1792 - 1864 1848 Michelangelo Principe Caetani, Duca di Sermoneta, Principe di Teano, Marchese di Cisterna, Signore di Bassiano, di Ninfa, etc (NC) 1804 - 1882 1848 Giuseppe Galletti (NC) s.a. 1848 Pellegrino Luigi, Conte Rossi (NC) s.a. 1848 Giuseppe Galletti (2x) (NC) (M) 1848 - 1849 Carlo Armellini (NC) (M) s.a. Ministers of Justice Ministers of Grace and Justice Ministri di Grazia e Giutizia (the Ministry of Grace and Justice was created out of the offices of the Auditor General of the Apostolic Chamber) 1847 - 1848 Roberto Giovanni Roberti, also Auditor General of the Apostolic Chamber 1788 - 1867 1848 Francesco Sturbinetti (NC) 1848 Pasquale De Rossi (NC) 1794 - 1863 1848 Felice Cicognini (NC) 1848 Giovanni Battista Sereni (NC) (M) 1848 - 1849 Federico Galeotti (NC) (M) Ministers of Finance Ministri delle Finanze (the Ministry of Finance was created out of the offices of the Treasurer General of the Apostolic Chamber) 1847 - 1848 Carlo Luigi Morichini, Titular Archbishop of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, at the same time Treasurer General of the Apostolic Chamber 1805 - 1879 1848 Annibale, Conte Simonetti (NC) 1848 Giuseppe Lunati (NC) 1800 - 1878 1848 Lauro Lauri (NC) 1848 Pellegrino Luigi, Conte Rossi* (NC) s.a. 1848 Giuseppe Lunati (2x) (NC) (M) 1848 - 1849 Livio Mariani (NC) (M) Ministers of Economic Affairs Ministers of Commerce, Fine Arts, Industry and Agriculture Ministri del Commercio, Belle Arti, Industria e Agricultura (the Ministry of Commerce, Fine Arts, Industry and Agriculture was created out of the offices of the Camerlengo of the Apostolic Chamber) 1847 - 1848 Cardinal Tommaso Riario Sforza, Cardinal Deacon of Santa Maria in Via Lata, at the same time Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church 1782 - 1857 1848 Giuseppe Conte Pasolini (NC) 1815 - 1876 1848 Mario Massimo di Rignano, Duca di Rignano a Calcata, Marchese di Ortona e Carreto (NC) s.q. 1848 Pietro Guardini (NC) 1848 Antonio Montanari (NC) 1811 - 1898 1848 - 1849 Pietro Sterbini (NC) (M) s.a. Ministers of Public Works Ministri dei Lavoro Publici (the Ministry of Public Works was created out of the Prefecture General of Waters and Roads) 1847 - 1848 Cardinal Francesco Saverio Massimo, Cardinal Deacon of Santa Maria in Domnica 1806 - 1848 1848 Giovanni Rusconi s.a. 1848 Francesco Sturbinetti (NC) s.a. 1848 Marco Minghetti (NC) 1818 - 1886 1848 Mario Massimo di Rignano, Duca di Rignano a Calcata, Marchese di Ortona e Carreto (NC) s.a. 1848 Pietro Guardini (NC) s.a. 1848 Mario Massimo di Rignano, Duca di Rignano a Calcata, Marchese di Ortona e Carreto (NC) (2x) 1848 - 1849 Pietro Sterbini (NC) (M) s.a. Ministers of Education Ministers of Public Instruction Ministri dell Instruzione Pubblica (the Ministry of Public Instruction was created out of the Sacred Congregation of the Studias) 1847 - 1848 Cardinal Giuseppe Gasparo Mezzofanti, Cardinal Priest with the title of San Onofrio, at the same time Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Studies 1774 - 1849 1848 Cardinal Carlo Vizzardelli, Cardinal Priest with the title of San Pancrazio, at the same time Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Studies (1848 - 1851) 1791 - 1851 1848 - 1849 Carlo Emmanuele Muzzarelli* (M) s.a. Minister without Portfolio Ministro senza Portafoglio (in the government of Rossi Sep - Nov 1848) 1848 Pietro, Conte Guarini (NC) s.a.THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (FEB - JUL 1849)
Chronology 1849 Feb 09 : A Constitutional Assembly of the Papal States (Chairman : Giuseppe Gabbelli - s.a.) deposed the Pope and proclaimed the Roman Republic. Supreme power was entrusted to an Executive Committee. Mar 29 : The Executive Committee was replaced by a Triumvirate Apr 20 : The four major Catholic European powers - Austria, France, Spain and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - decided to restore Papal authority. Apr 24 : A French expeditionary force [Commander : DivGen. Nicolas Charles Victor Oudinot, Duc de Reggio (1791 - 1863)] landed on the west coast. These French forces were soon followed by : May 01 : - Austrian armed forces [Commander : LtFieldmarsh. Franz Graf von Wimpffen (1797 - 1870)], invaded the country from the north. - Sicilian troops [Commander : King Ferdinando II (1810 - 1859], invaded the country from the South May 28 : Spanish troops [Commander : LtGen. Fernando Fernández de Córdoba (1809 - 1883)] joined the Sicilian forces. The territory ruled by the republican government was gradually reduced to Rome and its vicinity. Jul 01 : A new Triumvirate took office. Jul 03 : French troops entered Rome and ended the Roman Republic (Jul 04) (1) Jul 15 : Gen. Oudinot formally proclaimed the restoration of Papal rule. Executive Committee (Feb 09 - Mar 29) Comitato Esecutivo 1849 -Carlo Armellini s.a. -Aurelio Saliceti 1804 - 1862 -Mattia Montecchi 1816 - 1871 Triumvirate (Mar 29 - Jul O1) Triumvirato 1849 -Carlo Armellini s.a. -Giuseppe Mazzini 1805 - 1872 -Aurelio Saffi 1819 - 1890 Triumvirate (Jul 01 - Jul 04) Triumvirato 1849 -Aurelio Saliceti s.a. -Gen. Alessandro Calandrelli 1805 - 1888 -Livio Mariani (1) After the fall of the republic, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807 - 1882) tried to organize a resistance movement. He was expelled by the Austrians in Sep 1849. __________________________________________________________________________________MINISTERS
Presidents of the Council of Ministers Presidenti del Consiglio dei Ministri 1849 Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli s.a. 1849 Carlo Rusconi 1819 - 1889 Minister of Foreign Affairs Ministro degli Affari Esteri 1849 Carlo Rusconi s.a. Ministers of Defence Ministers of War and of the Navy Ministr1 della Guerra e della Marina 1849 Pompeo, Conte Di Campello s.a. 1849 Gen. Alessandro Calandrelli s.a. 1849 Gen. (Mexican Army) Giuseppe Avezzana 1797 - 1879 Ministers of the Interior Ministri dell'Interno 1849 Aurelio Saffi s.a. 1849 Carlo Berti Pichat 1800 - 1878 1849 Carlo Mayr Minister of Grace and Justice Ministro di Grazia e Giutizia 1849 Giovita Lazzarini 1813 - 1849 Ministers of Finance Ministri delle Finanze 1849 Ignazio Guiccioli 1849 Giacomo Manzoni 1816 - 1889 Ministers of Economic Affairs Ministers of Commerce Ministri del Commercio 1849 Pietro Sterbini s.a. 1849 Mattia Montecchi s.a. Ministers of Punlic Works Ministri dei Lavori Pubblici 1849 Pietro Sterbini s.a. 1849 Giacomo Manzoni s.a. 1849 Mattia Montecchi s.a. Ministers of Education Ministers of Public Instruction Ministri dell Instruzione Pubblica 1849 Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli s.a. 1849 Francesco Sturbinetti s.a.THE PAPAL STATES 1849 - 1870
The restoration of Papal authority did not stop all unrest. But the presence of Austrian and French troops prevented that this unrest evolved into a major revolutionary outbreak, like in 1849. (1) Things changed in 1859 - 1860 when - as a result of pro-Sardinian agitation (1859 - 1860) and of a Sardinian military intervention (1860) - the outlying parts of the Papal States (Marche, Romagna and Umbria) were annexed to Sardinia. What remained of the Papal States survived under French military protection until 1870. (For more details on the periods of Sardinian conquest 1859 - 1870 see here) (1) Sicilian and Spanish forces were withdrawn before the end of 1849. French Commanders Commanders-in Chief of the French Expeditionary Corps of the Mediterranean Commandants en Chef du Corps expéditionnaire français de la Méditerranée 1849 DivGen. Nicolas Charles Victor Oudinot, Duc de Reggio s.a. 1849 DivGen. Louis de Rostolan 1791 - 1852 1849 LtGen. Alphonse Henri, Conte d'Hautpoul 1789 - 1865 1849 - 1850 DivGen. Achille, Comte Baraguay-d'Hilliers 1795 - 1878 1850 DivGen. Antoine Gues Viller* 1791 - 1865 At the return of the Pope in 1850 French military presence was reduced to a division garrisoned at Rome. Commanders of the French Division in Occupation at Rome Commandants la Division française d'Occupation à Rome 1850 - 1853 DivGen Auguste Pierre Walbourg Gémeau 1790 - 1868 1853 - 185. BrigGen. Simon François Allouveau de Montreal 1791 - 1873 185. - 1862 BrigGen. Charles Marie Augustin, Comte de Goyon 1803 - 1870 1862 - 1866 DivGen. Gustave Olivier Lannes, Baron de Montebello 1804 - 1875 The evacuation of the French troops started in Oct 1865 and was achieved in Dec 1866. The events of 1867 and the return of the French Oct 04 : Pro-Italian volunteers headed by Menotti Garibaldi (1840 - 1903), son of Giuseppe Garibaldi (s.a.), invaded the Papal States. Several lcalities in the Legations of the Coast and Campania and of Rome and its District were occupied. Oct 23 : Giuseppe Garibaldi assumed himself command of the insurgents. Oct 28 : New landing of French troops on the west coast. Nov 03 : Battle of Mentana : the invaders were defeated. Commanders of the French Expeditionary Corps in the Roman States 1867 - 1868 DivGen. Pierre Louis Charles de Failly 1810 - 1892 1868 - 1870 DivGen. Charles Léon Dumont 1806 - 1889 The last French troops were withdrawn after the outbreak of the Franco- Prussian war. Austrian Commanders Austrian troops remained in occupation of the Legations of Romagna and of the Marche until 1859. Commanders of the VIII Army Corps Kommandanten des VIII Armeekorps (headquarters in Bologna - subordinated to the Commanders of the II Army) 1849 - 1850 LtFieldMarsh. Georg Graf von Thurn-Valsássina 1850 - 1853 LtFieldMarsh. Johann Graf Nobili 1798 - 1884 1853 LtFieldMarsh. Friedrich Prinz von und zu Liechtenstein 1807 - 1885 1853 - 1858 LtFieldMarsh. August Franz Johann Christoph Graf von Degenfeld-Schonburg 1798 - 1876 1858 - 1859 LtFieldMarsh. Andreas Melczer von Kellemés 1859 LtFieldMarsh. Ludwig Ritter von Benedek 1804 - 1881 The Austrians evacuated the Legations after the outbreak of the war against the French and Sardinians. __________________________________________________________________________________HEAD OF STATE
1849 - 1870 Pope Pius IX (secular name : Giovanni Maria Giambattista Pietro Pellegrino Isidoro, Conte Mastai - Ferreti) 1792 - 1878 SUPREME ADMINISTRATORS OF THE PAPAL STATES UNTIL THE RETURN OF THE POPE (JUL 1849 - APR 1850 MEMBERS OF THE FRENCH MILITARY ADMINISTRATION (Jul 04 - AUG 01 1849) Commander-in Chief of the French Expeditionary Corps of the Mediterranean Commandant en Chef du Corps expéditionnaire français de la Méditerranée 1849 DivGen. Nicolas Charles Victor Oudinot, Duc de Reggio s.a. Director of Military Affairs Directeur des Affaires militaires 1849 Lt. Henri Pierre Abdon Castelnau 1814 - 1890 Commissioner of Grace and Justice Commissario di Grazia e Giutizia 1849 ... Piacentini Commissioners of Finance Commissari delle Finanze 1849 Giuseppe Lunati s.a. 1849 Angelo Galli Commissioner of Public Works Commissario dei Lavoro Publici 1849 ... Cavalieri PAPAL ADMINISTRATORS (AUG 01 1849 - APR 12 1850) Governing State Commission Commissione Governativa di Stato [Appointed by the Pope on Jul 17, took office in Rome on Aug 01 - members known as the Red Triumvirs (Truimviri Rossi)] 1849 - 1850 -Lodovico Altieri, Cardinal Deacon of Santa Maria in Portico 1805 - 1867 -Gabriel della Genga Sermattei, Cardinal Priest with the title of San Giorlamo degli Schiavoni 1801 - 1861 -Luigi Vannicella Casonin Cardinal Priest with the title of Santa Prassede 1801 - 1877 (s.b. for the ministers they appointed) __________________________________________________________________________________MINISTERS
(After the restoration, the first ministers were appointed by the Red Triumvirs - the Ministry of Public Instruction was suppressed and educational affairs reverted to the Sacred Congregation of the Studies) President of the Council of Ministers - Minister of Foreign Affairs Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri - Ministro degli Assari Esteri 1849 - 1850 none. 1850 - 1870 Cardinal Secretary of State (until 1852 Pro Scretary) Giacomo Antonelli, Cardinal Deacon of Santa Agata alla Suburra and (since 1868) also of Santa Maria in Via Lata (2x), 1857 - 18.. also acting Minister of the Arms 1806 - 1876 Ministers of Defence Ministers of the Arms Ministri delle Armi 1849 - 1850 LtGen. Domenico III Orsini, Duca di Gravina, Principe di Solofra, di Vallata, di Roccagorga e del Sacro Romano Imperio, etc, etc (NC) 1790 - 1874 1850 BrigGen. Wilhelm Theodor von Kalbermatten* (Switzerland) (NC) 1793 - 1875 1850 - 1851 LtGen. Domenico III Orsini, Duca di Gravina, Principe di Solofra, di Vallata, di Roccagorga e del Sacro Romano Imperio, etc, etc (2x) 1851 - 1857 Col. (1855 : BrigGen.) Filippo Farina (* until 1855) (NC) 1... - 1857 1857 - 1860 President of the Council of Ministers Cardinal Secretary of State Giacomo Antonelli* s.a. Representative at the Ministry 1857 - 18.. L. Mazio (NC) 1860 - 1865 Frédéric François Xavier Ghislain de Mérode (Belgium) 1820 - 1874 1865 - 1870 BrigGen. Hermann Kanzler* (Baden), also Commander-in-Chief of the Pontifical Army 1822 - 1888 Ministers of the Interior and Police Ministri dell'Interno e di Polizia 1849 - 1853 Domenico Savelli Vice Camerlengo of the Roman Church 1792 - 1864 1853 - 1858 Teodolfo Mertel, first Minister to be also in charge of Grace and Justice 1806 - 1899 1858 - 1865 Andrea dei Conti Pila 1811 - 1868 1865 - 1868 Louis Antoine de Witten 1868 - 1870 Augusto Negroni Directors Generals of Police Direttori Generali di Polizia 1849 - 1850 ... 1850 - 1852 Ildebrando Rufini 1852 - 1865 Antonio Matteucci, Vice Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church since 1853 1802 - 1866 1865 - 1870 Lorenzo Ilarione Randi, Vice Camerlengo the Holy Roman Church 1818 - 1887 Minister of Grace and Justice Ministro di Grazia e Giutizia 1850 - 1853 Angelo Giansanti (NC) 1853 : Ministry abolished. Tasks taken over by the Ministry of the Interior. Ministers of Finance Ministri delle Finanze 1849 - 1854 Angelo Galli* (NC) s.a. 1854 - 1870 Giuseppe Ferrari Ministers of Economic Affairs Ministers of Commerce, Agriculture, Fine Arts and Public Works Ministri del Commercio, Agricultura, Belle Arti e Lavori Publici 1849 - 1854 Camillo Jacobini (NC) 1854 - 1858 Giuseppe Milesi Pironi Ferretti 1817 - 1873 1858 - 1860 Camollo Amici 1860 - 1868 P. D. Barone Constantini-Baldini (NC) 1868 - 1870 Giuseppe Berardi, Cardinal Priest with the title of Santi Marcellino e Pietro* 1810 - 1878 Minister without Portfolio Ministro senza Portafoglio 1850 - 1853 Teodolfo Mertel 1806 - 1899 __________________________________________________________________________________MILITARY LEADERS
Commanders-in-Chief (2) 1860 - 1865 Gen. Louis Christophe Leon Juchault de la Moricière (France), absent since 1860 1806 - 1865 1865 - 1870 Gen. Hermann Kanzler, acting since 1860 s.a. (2) There seem not to have existed a unifed command before 1860. At the same time the army was reorganized and modernized. The bulk of its forces was now formed by the so-called "Pontifical Zouaves", catholic volunteers from different countries [Belgium (especially Flanders), Canada, (especially Quebec), France, the Netherlands, the US, etc]STATE OF VATICAN CITY
See also ROMAN CATHOLIC HIERARCHY OF VATICAN CITY SINCE 1929
After the annexation of Rome to the Kingdom of Italy in 1870, the Italian state was disposed to grant to the Pope the prerogatives of a sovereign head of state and the possession of the Vatican palaces. The Pope refused however this proposition and considered himself as a prisoner. This situation lasted until 1929 when an agrreement - the Treaties of Lateran - was finally reached and a new independent Papal "microstate" was established. (1) (1) The State of Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano) covered : - the Vatican Palaces, part of the city of Rome - some buildings and domains in- and outside Rome enjoying extraterritorial privileges. Among them : - Castel Gandolfo, the summer residence of the Popes since 1607, - the territory of the Catacombs, certain buildings housing papal offices and some important churches such as San Paolo Fuori le Mura and Santa Maria Maggiore. Furthermors the State also possessed some other buildings which didn't enjoy extraterritoriality, but only a tax exemption (the Gregorian University, ...) __________________________________________________________________________________
HEADS OF STATE
1929 - .... The Popes __________________________________________________________________________________STATE OFFICIALS
GENERAL ADMINISTRATION, INTERNAL AFFAIRS AND DEFENCE Cardinal President of the Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City During the first years of its existence, the State of Vatican City was under the direct rule of the Pope. As it soon became difficult for him to administer at the same time the Church and the State, he transferred direct control over Vatican City affairs to a permanent Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City in 1939. 1939 - 1961 Cardinal Nicola Canali, Cardinal Deacon of San Nicola in Carcere 1874 - 1961 Governor Governatore The Governor - assisted by a Secretary General (Segretario Generale) - managed the daily internal affairs of the State. (2) 1931 - 1952 Camillo, Marchese Serafini 18.. - 1952 Commanders of the Swiss Pontifical Guard (since 1848) All that remained of the Pontifical armed forces after 1870 were some guard units, the most important being the Swiss Pontifical Guard (Guardia Svizzera Pontificia), founded in 1506. (3) (All with the rank of Col. - directly under the Pope and member of his Household) 1848 - 1860 Franz Xaver Leopold Meyer von SChauensee 1803 - 1860 1860 - 1878 Alfred von Sonnenberg 1823 - 1883 1878 - 1901 Louis-Martin de Courten 1835 - 1937 1901 - 1910 Leopold Meyer von Scauensee 1852 - 1910 1910 - 1921 Jules Repond 1853 - 1933 1921 - 1935 Alois Hirschbühl 1883 - 1950 1935 - 1942 Georg von Sury d'Aspremont 1887 - 1987 1842 - 1957 Heinrich Pfyffer von Altishofen 1... - 1957 FOREIGN AFFAIRS Vatican City had no foreign office of its own and its foreign affairs were handled by the Cardinal Secretary of State of the Roman Catholic Church. Likewise the State had no separate diplomatic representatives, being represented by the envoys of the Holy See. HEADS OF OTHER OFFICES Under the supervision of the Governor were : (incomplete) - Radio Vaticana - the Vatican Observatory Directors General of Radio Vatican Direttoori Generali della Radio Vaticana Radio Vaticana started broadcasting in 1931. 1931 - 1934 Giuseppe Gianfranceschi 1875 - 1934 1934 - 196. Filippo Soccorsi Directors of the Vatican Observatory Direttori della Specola Vaticana Astronomical research started at the end of the 16th century and was then related to the reform of th calendar. Later three observatories were founded : - 1771 - 1878 : the Obserrvatory of the Roman College, - 1789 - 1821 : the Vatican Observatory, - 1837 - 1870 : the Observatory of the Capitol In 1891 the defunct Vatican Observatory was revived, first at Rome, later (in 1935)) - when the town became too illuminated - in Castel Gandolfo. 1891 - 1894 Francesco Denza 1834 - 1894 1898 - 1906 Angelo Rodriguez (Spain) 1906 - 1930 Johann Georg Hagen (Germany) 1847 - 1930 1930 - 1951 Johann Stein (Netherlands) 1871 - 1951 (2) The Governorate was divided into : - The General Direction of Pontifical Monuments, Museums and Galeries (Direzione Generale dei Monumenti, Musei e Gallerie Pontificie), in charge of the artistic heritage of the Vatican, - The General Direction of the Technical Services (Direzione Generale dei Servizi Tecnici), in charge of the buildings, the car park, the furniture, the gardens, the laboratories, ..., - The General Direction of the Economic Services (Direzione Generale dei Servizi Economici), in charge of finances, railways, posts, telegraphs, ... - The Direction of the Sanitary Services (Direzione dei Servizi Sanitari), in charge of health affairs. (3) While the other guard units - the Palatine Guard (Guardia Palatina d'Onore) and the Noble Guard (Guardia Nobile) - mainly had ceremonial functions, the Swiss Guard actually was in charge of the "internal defence" of the State, the "external defence" being entrusted to the Italian state. The Vatican Guards during WWII : After the outbreak of WWII the guard units were expanded and modernized (introduction of combat uniform and modern guns) Loyal to their oath, the Swiss prepared to oppose resistance to a possible German attack, but the Pope considered that all defence would be suicidal and ordered them to stop their preparations. The only unit to see some action was however not the Swiss but the Palatine Guard (Commander 1937 - 1970 : Col. Francesco Conte Cantuti Castelvetri). While guarding Roman buildings and churches of the Vatican - where escaped prisoners, Jews and others had taken refuge - they scuffled with PNF forces and at least one gunfight is recorded.Back to Top HOLY SEE HOME HOME INDEX
