P: Clode's Right Political Dictionary
"PAC" See "Political Action Committee".
“Pairs” This is an arrangement invoked where a parliamentarian is unable to attend parliament for legitimate reasons such as ill health, or absence on a parliamentary delegation. A “pairing” is a gentleman’s arrangement with the opposing party that one of the opposing parliamentarians will become a “pair” and abstain from voting to balance the numbers. This practice operates solely on trust between enemy parties, and is not recognised under parliamentary standing orders. Such arrangements are approved and registered with the party Whips. Pairs are not granted for votes on serious political disputes.
“Parliamentary committee” This is a small group of parliamentarians, usually from all major parties, which meets to investigate and report on a particular subject. In a bicameral parliament, each chamber will have its own committees, along with some “Joint” committees on which upper and lower house parliamentarians sit. “Standing Committees” exist on a permanent basis with responsibility to examine topical issues within a single policy field, while “Select Committees” only exist for the purpose of a single investigation into one topical issue. Committees in the British House of Commons date from the early 1400s. Standing Committees began in 1882, as a means of countering Irish party tactics of delaying and obstructing issues in the House.
“Parliamentary Privilege” Parliamentary Privilege is a set of rights exclusive to sitting members of parliament. It is common that each house of parliament, its committees and members enjoy certain rights (such as freedom of speech) and immunities (exemptions from some laws). It is also common that each House has the power to deal with offences, including contempts which interfere with its functioning. Parliamentary privilege is usually associated with the privilege of freedom of speech, which is often described as the most important of all privileges. Its origins date from the British Bill of Rights of 1688. Article 9 of the Bill of Rights provides: “that the freedom of speech and debates or proceedings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament.” The best known advantage is that parliamentarians cannot be sued if they make defamatory statements in parliament, but the privilege can be wider than that and, for instance, protects parliamentarians from being prosecuted if in a debate they make a statement that would otherwise be a criminal offence. It is recognised that the privilege carries with it a corresponding obligation that it should always be used responsibly. It should also be noted that the privilege of freedom of speech is not confined to parliamentarians; it also applies to others taking part in 'proceedings in Parliament'. The most obvious example of others who may enjoy absolute privilege are witnesses who give evidence to committees (it is important to note that the privilege only applies to evidence given to properly constituted parliamentary committees, and does not, for instance, apply to party committees). Parliament may confer absolute privilege on various papers, including the official transcript of debates. Media can sometimes report defamatory remarks made in Parliament, relying on “qualified privilege”, for example where they report events without malice.
"Parliamentary Secretary” These parliamentarians serve as aides to Ministers, assigned executive responsibility for single government programs rather than entire departments. This term is only relevant to Westminster systems, where all Ministers sit in parliament. Each parliamentary Secretary is assigned to a particular Minister, working entirely within that one portfolio, and shares the burden of more time-consuming Ministerial tasks, such as speaking in support of government legislation and answering correspondence. Parliamentary Secretaries are often seen as trainee Ministers, providing a Prime Minister with an array of choices when assembling new Ministries. Parliamentary Secretaries are not part of the Ministry and are not conventionally obliged to answer questions in Question Time, even though they are responsible for some government programs.
“Parliamentary Term” This is the period between one election and the next. Usually it is several years (with the maximum period set between 3 to 5 years). In some electoral systems, there is a “fixed” term, with no allowance for an early election. In many electoral systems, there is only a maximum period and there is flexibility for the government to call an earlier “snap election”.
“Petition” This document is a request in writing, often with a lot of signatures, presented to the parliament asking for something to be done. The document has not practical effect, it is merely a campaign device, used to raise the prominence of an issue. A petition gathers most attention when party members are collecting signatures for it, as it creates a basis for communication between individual citizens and party canvassers. The document also focuses the attention of voters on a particular issue. It is rare for a petition to gain media attention at the point in time when it is tabled in parliament, unless the petition has garnered an exceptionally higher number of signatures. The right to petition the British monarch existed since Saxon times, was recognised in the Magna Carta and was explicitly affirmed in the Bill of Rights of 1688 stating “it is the right of the subjects to petition the King, and all commitments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal”. Petitions to houses of parliament date from the reign of King Richard II, becoming widespread under Henry IV. Many initial grievances aired by petitions concerned religious liberties, then, after the Restoration, complaints about public policy became more common.
“Platform” This word refers to a political party’s formal written statement of its core principles, moral values and policy goals. These documents range from lofty statements composed from colourful rhetoric, through to dull and legalistic statements. Policy platforms are less important in elections where major parties agree on key policy questions, or in elections where the media focuses more on each candidate’s appearance, personality, and perceived leadership ability. A “platform” usually describes general policy directions, as opposed to a “policy” which is confined to one policy area and which is far more specific about how party objectives are implemented. The platform is usually voted on by senior party officials or branch representatives or platform committee members, whereas the politicians determine the more specific policies. A common left-wing term for a platform is a “manifesto.” (See “manifesto”)
“Plebiscite” A plebiscite is a ballot of local party members or the general population. A plebiscite may either produce a binding change, or it may just be an “indicative plebiscite” which sends a message to political leaders about what kind of changes are desired by the grass roots. Within a party, a plebiscite system can be used to create a more democratic process for selecting election candidates, or for voting on the policy platform. Unlike a delegate system, where only a limited number of party officials vote through a pyramid structure, a plebiscite gives every party member one equal vote. Prominent examples of plebiscite voting can be seen in the United States Presidential primaries. (See also “Delegate”, “Primary”)
“Plurality Rule” The plurality rule is a method of identifying the winning candidate in an election, including where no candidate has an outright majority. This is the principle which applies in a first-past-the-post election. A plurality of votes is the total vote received by the leading candidate, which is greater than that received by any other opponent.
“Political Action Committee (PAC)” These bodies are creatures of the United States political system. PACs are committees that are not the official committees of any candidate or political party (however PACs may be affiliated with corporations, unions, or other organizations). Their main role is to contribute money and resources to election candidates and engage in other election-related activities. Many PACs have specific legislative agendas, only supporting candidates who back their position on particular issues. Interest groups often use PACs as a means of influencing candidates to support their pet causes. In congressional elections PACs have grown in number and influence: in 1976, there were 608 PACs in the United States, then by 1996they had grown to more than 4,000 in number.
“Postal voting” This is a system of voting where a completed ballot paper is posted by mail in a sealed envelope. There are two variants of this system. In some systems, all ballots are cast by mail. This is easiest in a small ballot or in an organisation with a limited membership, such as a political party. The second variant is where an elector may choose between voting in person at a polling booth, or voting by post (this is sometimes found in public election systems). In these systems, an elector may vote by mail prior to polling day if he or she is sick, or is not going to be near a polling booth on polling day. Ballots completed in this way may require special declaration forms and will be subject to special scrutiny to ensure that they are legal votes. Postal ballots are more vulnerable to fraud because it is easier to intercept a ballot paper and tamper with it while it is being sent out to an elector, or while it is being posted back to be counted. Trade unions are often accused of using postal votes to enable fraud in their internal elections.
“Pre-polling” The “pre-poll” is the period of time preceding polling day where a booth opens in each seat to allow people to vote, who otherwise could not vote on the actual polling day (for instance because they would be overseas, or because they would be working throughout the polling period). This opportunity exists in a number of public election systems, but is not often used for internal party elections. During the pre-polling period, party workers are often allowed to send scrutineers in the ordinary fashion. Sometimes pre-polling is facilitated by using postal votes. (See “Postal Votes”)
“Preselection” This is the process used within a party to select a candidate to run in a public election as a representative of the party. This is essentially an election before the election, where would-be candidates have to run a campaign within their own parties. (See “Primary)
“Primary” A primary is a preliminary electoral contest held to determine each party’s candidate for a particular public office. These contests precede the public contest between opposing parties. In “closed” primaries, only registered members of a party may vote. In “open” primaries, anyone can vote regardless of their party affiliation Depending on the applicable laws, voters cast ballots directly for the candidate they prefer or for delegates who are “pledged” to support that candidate in the relevant party convention time. Primaries are best suited for significant electoral contests – such as selection of a party’s Presidential candidate. State primaries which are early enough in the political season can occasionally stop leading presidential candidates in their tracks and create a surge of support for a lesser-known candidate. (See “Caucus”)
“Protest vote” A protest vote occurs where supporters of one party redirect their votes away from their preferred party, not with the intention of seriously supporting an alternative party, but with the intention of sending a message of disapproval to the leaders of their preferred party. Protest votes are most common in electorates where the preferred party has a large majority, or where there is a by-election which will not change the government of the day. The most common protest tactic is to vote for a third party, or an independent candidate, rather than supporting the main opponent party.
“Proxy” or “proxy delegate” A proxy is someone who stands in for a full delegate at a party meeting. (See “Delegate”)
“Public funding” This is partial financing of election campaigns arranged under a legislative scheme. Such funds are usually “matching funds”, distributed according to the level of private funding which each candidate receives. Public funding is sometimes delivered at taxpayers’ expense, while under other schemes the money in the fund comes exclusively from voluntary contributions made by taxpayers when they pay annual tax dues. (See “Matching funds”)
“Push polling” This opinion polling technique is used to test possible campaign themes by asking very specific questions about an issue or candidate. The technique is sometimes used as a subtle means of influencing how swinging voters vote, rather than as a way of measuring opinions within the electorate. Where push polling is used to “push” rather than “poll”, a survey will base questions around negative facts about the opposing candidate, and the phone calls are directed only to swinging voters. The push technique is usually used on the eve of an election, to ensure that negative facts about an opposing candidate are prominent in the minds of voters immediately before they go to vote. By loading the questions, the poll elicits the desired response of a negative reaction to the opposing candidate. The technique has received a bad reputation in some cases, where unscrupulous campaigns have used false or misleading information in their questions, to push voters away from the opponent candidate.