WELCOME TO SPECIAL PUBLICATION no.15.

This work continues the mundi club's deconstruction of environmental/ecological politics. A small part of this work was first published in october 1995 as sp 8 'The Geophysiological Threats Posed by Green Cars' which looked at the sources of alternative energy for so-called green cars. This work explores the geophysiological damage caused by all forms of alternative energy.

Part one points out the geophysiological damage caused by the sources of alternative energy. Part two highlights the geophysiological damage caused by the conversion of green sources of energy to usable forms of energy. Part three explores the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of alternative energy. Part four covers the geophysiological damage caused by the consumption of alternative energy. Part five explores the special case of hydrogen which some greens believe is the green fuel of the future. Part six tries to assess the overall geophysiological damage that could be caused by alternative energy. Part seven summarizes the dangers of alternative energy. The addenda lists the greens who support various forms of alternative energy.

Most greens tend to look upon alternative energies from the perspective of the greenhouse effect; whilst fossil fuels release massive quantities of greenhouse gases alternative energies are far more environmentally friendly. This focus on greenhouse emissions creates a tendency for greens to overlook or condone the geophysiological damage caused by alternative energy - a complaint which the mundi club has been made for the last decade without success. It is imperative to look at energy, whether conventional or alternative, from the Earth's perspective and determine its impact on the Earth's life support system, i.e. its Photosynthetic capacity which stabilizes the Earth's climate. Given that everything that oomans do affects the climate then alternative energy should be assessed by the totality of its impact on the climate.

This work is not the definitive critique of alternative energy. It does, however, provide the foundation and structure for such a critique. It also analyzes the implications of the vast number of interconnections between the sources, conversion, transmission, and consumption, of alternative energies. It is important to point out the links even if all the details are not available. The aim is to assess the totality of the impacts that could be made by each type of alternative energy. It seems essential that the geophysiological implications of alternative energy should be understood before advocating these forms of energy. Even at this preliminary stage in the assessment it is clear that some forms of alternative energy could inflict severe damage on the Earth's life support system and destabilize the climate - this is especially likely when green energies are simply slotted into the vast global gas/oil/water/electricity networks that are currently causing so much damage to the Earth. Ultimately, the issue is whether alternative energies are going to enable capitalist societies to continue wrecking the Earth or whether they will force fundamental changes on such societies. Of the two extremes, it is far more likely that alternative energy will continue oomans' destruction of the Earth's life support system rather than necessitating a wholesale restructuring. Solar/hydrogen energies have one 'advantage' over fossil fuels that threatens to wreck the Earth - they are available in virtually unlimited quantities.

Anyone familiar with terra firm 2 "Ban Cars' will recognize the methodology employed here of trying to assess the total impact of a phenomena on the Earth's Carbon spiral. If readers have any useful information about alternative energy or the interconnections between the matrix of industries underpinning alternative energy, it would be gratefully received.

Introduction: Energy and A Sustainable Planet.

I: The Role of Phytomass in Global Burning.

The vast majority of greens whether environmentalists or ecologists believe the prolific use of fossil fuels is releasing greenhouse gases which are destabilizing the Earth's climate and that preventing further destabilization requires a massive switch to alternative energies which, allegedly, do not release greenhouse gases. Unfortunately greens have focused almost exclusively on the destabilization of the climate caused by greenhouse emissions and completely overlooked the destabilization of the climate caused by the damage inflicted on the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity. At best it could be argued that greens have not costed the impact of so-called environmentally friendly forms of energy on the Earth's life support system. It could be that they are geophysiological ignoramuses but, at worst, it is possible they are ignoring this damage because they have a vested interest in the promotion of alternative energy. Greens are as devious as multinational corporations when it comes to propaganda promoting their self interests.

II: Oomans Increasing Dependence on Non-Renewable Resources; the Distinction Between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources.

The first hominids were herbivores who lived off the Planet's Photosynthetic income. Gradually, as oomans evolved, they became increasingly reliant on food and resources obtained from Animals. As significant as this change to carnivorism may have been, oomans were still dependent on the Planet's Photosynthetic income - it was just that oomans were getting Animals to digest Phytomass instead of doing it themselves. But, during recorded history, "Humanity began to shift its dependence from the income provide by solar energy in the form of food and other products of the biosphere. Instead people became increasingly dependent upon the 'capital' portion of their inheritance. The non-renewable resources of the Earth; minerals, stored groundwater and fossil fuels." [1]

In the over-industrialized countries, consumers regard themselves as far more civilized than their 'primitive' hunter-gatherer ancestors. And yet, as william catton has pointed out, modern oomans are still fundamentally hunter-gatherers because their reliance on non-renewable resources requires considerable amounts of time and energy hunting for these resources buried deep beneath the ground or under the sea and then gathering them through vast oil/gas pipelines for consumption.

Capitalism is so dependant for its continued growth on the rapacious consumption of the Planet's capital resources that it is best characterised not by the accumulation of capital, the search for profits, the mass production of commodities, nor the labour theory of value, but by the exploitation of the Planet's non-renewable resources. The ecological basis of capitalism has been referred to as 'carboniferous capitalism' [2]

Geophysiologically speaking, those who live off the Planet's capital resources are all too aptly called capitalists, whilst those who depend on the Planet's income are incomists. Capitalists are scroungers sponging off the Planet's capital resources without giving anything back to the Earth - except pollution and waste. All conventional political parties are capitalist and this is as true for the socialist workers party, the militant party, and the communist party, etc. as well as the raving, loony, conventional parties. Capitalists not merely refuse to pay for the geophysiological services they obtain, and refuse to confine themselves to the exploitation of the Planet's Photosynthetic income, they use the Planet's non renewable resources to systematically disrupt, poison or destroy the Earth's renewable resources.

The ooman race is destroying the Planet's life-sustaining processes for oomans by exploiting the Planet's capital resources, its non-renewable resources. The increasing consumption of non-renewable resources is unsustainable. The only way the ooman race is going to survive, in perpetuity, is not through the conservation of unsustainable resources, which is just a futile attempt to constrain greed, but by relying solely upon an income drawn from the Planet's renewable resource - its Phytomass. If oomans are to take care of the Earth, and ensure their own survival, they must abolish capitalism and construct a global political system based on the scientific principles of geophysiology.

III: Current Energy Consumption.

Whilst coal triggered the industrial revolution, oil pushed industrialization into over-drive. There are those who argue that oil will persist because once oil reserves have been drained it will be possible to exploit the massive deposits of tar and oil shale. Easterbrook believes oil will become cheaper, "My supposition is that oil .. will grow ever cheaper." [3] On the other hand there are those who argue oil is on the way out, "Colin campbell .. gave a sobering view of declining cheap oil reserves and declining discovery rates. Of the 1,620 bn barrels so far discovered, 784bn barrels have been consumed leaving 836bn remaining in known oilfields. Campbell estimates that there may be some 180bn barrels yet to be discovered in new fields, resulting in a probable 1,016bn barrels remaining to be produced. At the present annual rate of production of 23bn barrels, the remainder represents some 44 years of production of cheap oil. The discovery rate of new oil peaked many years ago in the 60s and is now only about a quarter of the present annual rate of production, at 6bn barrels a year. Assuming that world demand for energy continues to grow in the first half of the century at a 2% traditional rate, renewables will be required to fill the growing gap between what fossil fuels can supply and as the energy demand increases .. By the middle of the century, the primary energy supplied by renewables could be 50% of the total." [4]

Current trends suggest the era of oil's dominance of the world economy will soon be replaced by that of natural gas whose use has increased rapidly during the 1990s, "World production of natural gas, the world's third largest energy source, reached a record 1,974 million tons of oil equivalent in 1993, according to preliminary estimates. Natural gas now provides 21% of the world's primary energy. The late eighties and early nineties were marked by expanding use of natural gas throughout most of the world." [5] It is believed that natural gas will soon become the second largest source of energy .. "the pattern of world energy use is undergoing a radical transformation that is also lowering Carbon emissions. After increasing six fold between 1950 and 1979, oil use has levelled off, actually declining 7% from 1979 to 1993. Production of coal which had been growing rather steadily from mid-century onward, dropped more than 5% from the peak year of 1989. By contrast, the use of natural gas is climbing, its growth driven both by price and because it is clean burning, particularly compared with coal and oil. Within the next few years, the surging reliance on natural gas is likely to move it above coal, making it second only to oil as an energy source." [6] Even more startling is the prediction for the ascendancy of natural gas .. "use of natural gas can be expected to double or even triple during the next few decades. Since world oil production is likely to grow only modestly from the current level, and then decline, natural gas could become the most important fossil fuel by 2010 .." [7]

Once traditional gas fields have been exhausted it may be possible to obtain huge quantities of gas from the conversion of coal or the exploitation of gas hydrates on the sea floor. [8] "A newly discovered source of frozen fuel packed below the ocean floor could power the planet for centuries - if scientists can think of a safe way to tap it. The vast untapped energy source that is locked away in methane compressed into solid form by the weight of the ocean above it could be double all the coal, natural gas and oil ever burned, or likely to be burned. The ocean is 70 per cent of the planet, and the Earth's last unexplored region. Oceanographers have pointed out repeatedly that the surfaces of Venus and Mars are better mapped than the ocean floor. But that could change with the gradual revelation of huge potential resources, now including awesome stores of energy frozen in veins and lodes in the ocean muds. The frozen methane exists on the edge of continents in mud a few metres below the ocean floor in a layer a few hundred metres thick. It was produced by bacteria feeding on the sediment and producing methane as a waste product. At huge pressures, this methane reacts with ultra-cold water to turn into a kind of room temperature ice, to be preserved for millions of years. This product of natural chemistry is called a hydrate. Each cubic metre of the hydrate contains an estimated 160 cubic metres of pure methane, or natural gas. But like gold, methane hydrates could be difficult to exploit. ''It's in fine-grained sediment, it's deep in the oceans, we think it is spread in quite thin layers - we don't know for sure - and somebody has to try and get it out,'' said Joe Cann, of the Natural Environment Research Council's British mid-ocean ridge research group. ''There are lodes, there are veins, there are tiny little dusty bits. We still know very little about it.''" [9]

IV: The Distinction Between Renewable and Non-Renewable (Alternative) Forms of Energy.

There is a common distinction between non-renewable forms of energy, like fossil fuels, and alternative energy such as solar and hydro-electric. The former energies are unsustainable because eventually fossil fuels will be exhausted whereas the latter are supposedly sustainable because they should never become exhausted.

In this work a further distinction is made between renewable forms of energy and non-renewable i.e. alternative, forms of energy. Whilst renewable energy is organically rooted in the Planet's life support system, non-renewable forms of energy are not. The only renewable source of energy is Phytomass such as Trees, Vegetation and Photoplankton. Whenever renewable resources are used as a source of energy they release Carbon dioxide and other nutrients into the atmosphere which promotes Photosynthesis. There is no other source of energy which is renewable i.e. contributes to its own renewability. [10] Alternative sources of energy are not organically rooted in the Earth's living processes. Although hydro-electric power is dependent upon water, which is one of the Planet's most important cyclical processes, it uses only the gravitational energy of water and does not involve any organic process. All forms of alternative energy, including solar power, are non renewable because they do not contribute to their own renewal.

The source of the energies found on Earth reveals which are an organic part of the Earth and which are not:-

* the cosmos : nuclear fusion is a universal force not found naturally on the Earth; nuclear fission derives from the origins of the universe but is not an inherent component of the Earth's living processes; [11]

* the sun: e.g. thermal energy, photovoltaic energy, hydro-electricity, wind, wave;

* the moon: the gravitational pull of the moon generates tidal energy on Earth;

* the Earth: geothermal energy;

* the biosphere: Phytomass, the fermentation of manure; bacteriological energy; and,

* the industrialized sphere: chemical energy; energy from inorganic waste products.

The sources of energy found in the biosphere are an organic part of the Earth's life support system whereas the other forms of energy are not.

The second distinction between renewable and non-renewable forms of energy is that whereas the former helps to restore the Earth's life support system and stabilize the climate, the latter does not - on the contrary, non-renewable forms of energy destabilize the climate. Because many forms of alternative energy destabilize the climate this undermine their sustainability e.g. hydro-electric power becomes useless in droughts; wind power becomes useless if the wind drops or blows from the wrong direction.

V: A Sustainable Planet.

Oomans must rely for their survival on a form of energy which is renewable (contributes to its own renewability); a part of the Earth's life support system; and is sustainable (by stabilizing the climate it will be available in perpetuity). It should also help to create a sustainable planet.

It was pointed out above that greens demand a switch from fossil fuels to alternative energy in order to reduce greenhouse emissions and prevent the destabilization of the Earth's life support system. They do not suggest, however, how this would help to create a sustainable Planet primarily because they do not have a vision of a sustainable Planet. Perhaps even more remarkable than the fact that greens have not geophysiologically costed their proposals for alternative energy (whilst condemning the fossil fuel industries for not assessing the environmental impact of fossil fuels) is that whilst greens talk about the need to create a sustainable society, very few have outlined the nature of such a society - let alone the nature of a sustainable Planet. How is it possible for greens to promote alternative forms of energy when they do not know how these forms of energy will help to create a sustainable planet?

VI: The Criteria for Green Energy.

The criteria for the most suitable form of energy that should be used on Earth are as follows:-

* renewable (capable of being sustainable over the long term, regulating global warming, serving as the basis of a sustainable planet, and, strengthening the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity, its life support system);

* limited (providing only a limited amount of energy so that its expenditure cannot seriously damage the Earth's life support system);

* consistency (capable of providing a constant flow of energy when required);

* flexibility, (capable of creating a range of different types of energy whether electricity or biofuels); and,

* political flexibility (useable in a centralized or a decentralized way).

PART ONE: THE GEOPHYSIOLOGICAL DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE SOURCES OF GREEN ENERGY.

ONE: SOLAR ENERGY.

1.1.1: Background.

1.1.1.1: The Quantity of Solar Heat Reaching the Earth.

According to malcolm slesser, "Total solar radiation impinging on the Earth is about 86 x 10¹³ GJ per year .." [1] Much of this energy is absorbed by the oceans, "The oceans act as vast solar energy reservoirs; every 90 minutes the Gulf Stream releases to the air as much energy as humans worldwide produce in a year from burning coal." As a result, the Gulf Stream, "dominates the climate of western Europe. It keeps Siberian weather away from most of western Europe and ensures for instance, that London remains many degrees warmer in winter than in New York, even though London is 1,000 kilometres further north." [2]

1.1.1.2: The Quantity of Solar Heat in Comparison to Anthropogenic Sources of Heat.

Slesser suggests anthropogenic energy consumption is a tiny fraction of incoming solar energy, "Total solar radiation impinging on the Earth is about 86 x 10¹³ GJ per year and the current annual energy consumption is merely around 15x10¹⁰ GJ per year." [3] Since the concept of giga-joules is difficult to envisage there are a number of alternative ways of envisaging the scale of the solar energy reaching the Earth's surface, "Our annual solar energy budget is roughly equivalent to 500,000,000,000,000 barrels of oil." [4] ; "The amount of energy in the form of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface daily is more than 5,000 times our present civilization's daily energy use; it is roughly equal to the energy yield of 2 million one-megaton hydrogen bombs." [5]

1.1.1.3: The Status of Solar Energy.

Solar energy is often regarded as the archetypal alternative form of energy which is both renewable and sustainable. Whilst the sun is a long term source of energy, it is not a renewable form of energy; it does not contribute to its own renewal.

1.1.2: Direct Solar Energy.

1.1.2.1: Passive Energy Technologies.

Passive heating systems use heat directly from the sun, there is no conversion of energy involved. The changes are made not to the energy but to houses/buildings. The objective is to retain/deflect as much of the sun's heat as possible to reduce the demand on anthropogenic sources of energy - whether for heating or air conditioning. Passive solar heating systems are built into the design and construction of houses/buildings. They include constructing houses/buildings in sun-facing directions, double glazed windows, and windows which reflect/absorb sunlight in different ways at different times of the day.

1.1.2.2: The Geophysiological Damage Caused by the use of Direct Solar Energy.

The construction of houses/buildings boosts Carbon emissions and damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity, but the sun-facing element of the construction makes no additional impact on the Earth's climate. There are some high tech passive solar heating systems which make an impact on the climate. Some passive solar heating systems are less ecological damaging than the sealed windows, air conditioning, and central heating, required by conventional buildings. Although passive energy technologies have an impact on the Earth's life support system there is not enough information to carry out any useful assessment.

1.1.3: Solar Cells.

1.1.3.1: The Development of Solar Cells.

1.1.3.1.1: The Types of Solar Cells.

It has been argued, "The ultimate energy source is photovoltaic energy." [6] There are three forms of solar cells, "Solar cells come in various forms - solid state, photovoltaic and, the latest, photoelectrochemical cells which work like a conventional battery." [7]

1.1.3.1.2: The Storage of Solar Energy.

"Because photoelectrochemical cells, unlike photovoltaic devices, can also store solar energy, large scale solar power generation could one day compete with nuclear power and fossil fuels." [8]

1.1.3.1.3: The Scale of the Manufacture of Photovoltaic Solar Cells.

The increasing sales of photovoltaic solar cells is reducing the price, "The worldwide (solar photovoltaic) industry, including activities such as retail sales and installation, did about $1 billion worth of business in 1993." [9]

1.1.3.1.4: The Efficiency of Photovoltaic Solar Cells.

In purely mechanical terms, the Earth's first solar cell, Photosynthesis, is extremely inefficient since it manages to convert only 1% of the sun's energy into terrestrial energy. However, there are technologies which threaten to bring about a massive increase in efficiency, "Michael gratzel .. have developed a solar cell based on titanium dioxide that converts light to electricity with an energy efficiency as high as 33% - double that of currently available photovoltaic cells." [10]

The following two sections explore the damage caused by photovoltaic solar cells and uses this as a model for the types of damage that are likely to be caused by solid state/photoelectrochemical solar cells.

1.1.3.2: The Geophysiological Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral caused by Solar Cells.

1.1.3.2.1: Mining and Manufacturing.

The mining, processing, and manufacturing, of solar cells releases Carbon emissions into the atmosphere.

1.1.3.2.2: Site Clearance.

Forests may have to be burnt/logged to clear the site for the construction of new buildings to manufacture, sell, or install/maintain/repair solar cells. This would release greenhouse gases.

1.1.3.2.3: Construction.

The construction of new buildings to manufacture, sell, or install/maintain/repair solar cells etc, would cause pollution.

1.1.3.2.4: The Use of Solar Cells.

There are no greenhouse emissions from the use of solar cells, "Producing electricity from photovoltaics generates no air pollution." [11]

1.1.3.2.5: Waste Disposal.

The disposal of solar cells might release greenhouse gases.

1.1.3.2.6: Transportation.

Carbon emissions would be released by the transportation of raw materials for the processing, manufacturing, and retailing of solar cells.

1.1.3.3: The Geophysiological Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral caused by Solar Cells.

1.1.3.3.1: Mining and Manufacturing.

The mining, processing, and manufacturing, of solar cells would damage the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.1.3.3.2: Construction.

The construction of factories to manufacture solar cells and the construction of retail outlets to sell solar devices, etc, suffocates the land's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.1.3.3.3: Waste Disposal.

The manufacture of solar cells would create toxic waste which, if not disposed of correctly, could damage the Earth's life support system, "And production of standard silicon solar cells yields little waste. New cell technologies are being developed, however, and some of them do generate some toxic materials. Large scale production of some multilayer cells that use exotic materials like gallium arsenide or cadmium sulphide also produce some toxins." [12]

1.1.3.3.4: The Developments Triggered off by Solar Cells.

By far and away the biggest damage that solar cells inflict on the Earth's life support system results from demographic dispersal. In the over-industrialized, solar cells could trigger off huge developments in Wilderness areas e.g. in second, holiday, homes. In the industrializing countries, solar cells could help to support the viability of rural villages.

The Over-Industrialized World.

"The use of solar electric systems in rural homes is growing in industrial countries as well, spurred by the popularity of vacation cabins and the cost of reaching them with power lines, which in the united states runs between $13,500 and $33,000 per kilometre for even small local distribution lines. In contrast a 500-watt pv system - enough to power an efficient home's lights, radio, television, and computer - would cost less than $15,000 including batteries for storage. Norway already has 50,000 pv powered country homes, and an additional 8,000 are being "solarized" each year. Among the other leaders in pv home installations are spain, switzerland and the united states. All four nations have extensive forests or mountains and a middle class with the money and leisure time to enjoy them." [13] ; "Electric utilities are beginning to serve the remote home market as well .. In the rugged mountains and remote basins of the northwestern united states, the idaho power company is purchasing, installing, and maintaining pvs for homeowners located off the grid. Instead of a bill based on electricity use, customers pay a set monthly fee based on the cost of installing and maintaining the system." [14]

The Industrializing World.

"Worldwatch note that the second highly promising source of electricity is the photovoltaic cell, which it reports is now the source of electricity in some 400,000 homes, mostly in third world villages." [15] This will maintain rural people in a state of semi-poverty. It is only in concentrated urban areas that they stand any chance of obtaining a higher quality of life.

1.1.3.4: The Oomanistic Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Cell Energy.

From an oomanistic perspective there are a number of advantages and disadvantages of using solar cell energy.

1.1.3.4.1: Abundance.

Solar power could provide a vast abundance of energy.

1.1.3.4.2: The Flexibility of Solar Energy.

Solar energy is a flexible form of energy in the sense that it can be obtained in virtually any quantity desired from the superabundant to the minuscule e.g. solar powered pocket calculators .. "solar cells can be placed anywhere, as small units on rooftops or in massive groupings that become desert power plants." [16]

1.1.3.4.3: The Hi-Tech Nature of Solar Energy.

The hi-tech nature of solar cells creates a political paradox because whilst on the one hand the use of solar cells is capable of promoting decentralization, e.g. solar panels which can be fitted to household rooftops to produce domestic electricity, solar powered pocket calculators, etc, on the other hand, the more sophisticated the technology, the more centralized its manufacture. Whilst solar cells enable solar energy to be used on the local scale, solar technologies require a centralized manufacturing process. Solar cell technologies create both a centralizing and decentralizing pressure on society and it is by no means clear which of these tendencies will prevail.

1.1.3.4.4: The Drawbacks.

Solar cells have a number of drawbacks. Firstly, they create only electricity. [17] Secondly, they create electricity at times when it is not needed and cannot create electricity at times when it is needed. The only way around this difference in supply and demand is the storage of electricity. Unfortunately, it is difficult storing solar heat or electricity .. "electricity that is generated by existing photovoltaic cells cannot be stored long term; it must be used immediately." [18] There are efforts to overcome these drawbacks, "Researchers at princeton university have discovered a compound which will store solar energy for days or months." [19] No details about this are known.

1.1.4: Solar Power Stations.

There are two types of solar power station - solar cell, and thermal-solar, power stations. The first relies on an array of photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight directly into electricity. The second uses mirrors to focus solar energy onto a device which creates steam to drive a turbine to produce electricity. There are a wide variety of devices used to create steam. This section refers to both solar cell power stations and thermal power stations.

1.1.4.1: The Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral.

1.1.4.1.1: Mining and Manufacturing.

Pollution would be released by the mining, processing and manufacturing of the components used in solar power stations.

1.1.4.1.2: Site Clearance.

The construction of solar power stations may require the razing of Forests which would release greenhouse gases.

1.1.4.1.3: Construction of Solar Power Stations.

The construction of solar power stations would release greenhouse gases.

1.1.4.1.4: Transportation.

Pollution would be released by the transportation of the ores to solar power manufacturing companies; the transportation of components to the sites of solar power stations; and by the transportation entailed by the construction, maintenance and functioning of solar power stations.

1.1.4.1.5: Transmission of Electricity.

For the release of greenhouse gases caused by the transmission of electricity see below.

1.1.4.2: The Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral.

1.1.4.2.1: Mining and Manufacturing.

Geophysiological damage would be caused the mining, processing, and manufacturing, of the components used in solar power stations. (For the damage caused by the mining and manufacturing of solar cells see above).

1.1.4.2.2: Transportation.

Geophysiological damage would be caused by the construction of roads needed by solar power stations.

1.1.4.2.3: Construction of Solar Power Stations.

Solar power stations would destroy the Photosynthetic capacity of the land on which they are sited.

1.1.4.2.3.1: Areas of Land Suffocated by Power Stations.

One power station occupies a considerable area of land, "The (solar) power plant built at harper lake, california, in the mojave desert in 1989 (spreads) over 750 hectares, hundreds of rows of gleaming solar collectors produce enough power for about 170,000 homes." [20]

1.1.4.2.3.2: Future Plans for Solar Power Stations.

In the future, huge areas of land could be suffocated by solar power stations, "Forty years from now, solar thermal plants may stretch across the deserts of the u.s., north africa and central asia. Hydrogen fuel ... can be manufactured in desert solar plants and shipped by pipeline to run automobiles in distant cities." [21] ; "Within two decades or less we may see thousands of square kilometres of the sahara and kazakhstan, of arizona and chile, covered with photovoltaic collectors." [22] ; "In the united states, as part of a plan to develop a 1,000mw solar enterprise zone in the nevada desert, enron has announced plans to build a 100mw solar power station. Such a power station would be the largest solar operation in the united states, producing enough power for a city of 100,000 people." [23]

1.1.4.2.3.3: Estimates of Land Needed for Solar Power Stations.

One estimate has been made about the amount of land required by solar power stations to meet current demand for electricity, "A 1,000-megawatt solar thermal facility would require 24 square kilometres of land. Meeting all u.s electricity needs with this technology would thus require about 29,000 square kilometres, an area one tenth the size of arizona." [24] ; "At the present stage of development, 23,000 square kilometres of land would need to be under sun-farm to provide the United States' current electricity supply. There is a bombing range owned by the US Air Force in Nevada which could alone provide two-thirds of (this) figure." [25]

It has been calculated that .. "to provide 24 million kwh of electrical energy per day in europe would require collection of 685 million kwh in the form of solar energy. In a region averaging 6 kwh/m²/day this would require 114 million square meters of solar collectors." [26]

This vision of a solar-powered future gives a clear idea of the scale of the destruction which could be inflicted on the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity by solar power stations.

1.1.4.2.3.4: Comparisons with other Power Stations.

There are disputes about whether the area of land needed for solar power stations would be greater or smaller than for conventional power stations. One commentator argues conventional power stations require less land than solar power stations .. "it is unlikely that they can be used to generate electricity on a large scale because we simply do not have enough space. At current efficiencies, for example, several thousand acres of solar panels would be required to absorb enough solar energy to produce the electricity generated by a single conventional power plant." [27]

1.1.4.2.4: The Developments Triggered off by Solar Energy.

As was the case with solar cells, the biggest damage that solar power stations are likely to inflict on the Earth's life support system are the developments that would occur as a consequence of producing an abundance of energy. New cities are bound to spring up close to solar power plants, "Enron is investing $150 million in a solar power plant in the desert of southern nevada which will produce sufficient electricity for a (new? ed) city of 100,000 people (and their cars? ed). The plant will be over ten times larger than any previously built and that means that the costs of the solar-power cells will drop as a result of mass production." [28]

1.1.4.2.5: Transmission of Electricity.

For the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of electricity see below.

1.1.4.3: Conclusions.

Solar energy technologies tend to be hi-tech no matter whether they are developed on the grand or the diminutive scale e.g. from solar powered space stations to solar powered pocket calculators. The more sophisticated the technology, the greater the pollution that is likely to be generated during manufacture. Rare metals are often employed and these are usually treated with a variety of chemicals and solvents which cause pollution.

The political implications of solar cells/power stations are paradoxical; the more sophisticated the technology, the more difficult it becomes to manufacture locally. But, some solar cells provide highly decentralized sources of energy, e.g. solar panels which can be fitted to household roofs to produce domestic electricity.

Solar cells are a good example of the way that alternative energy contributes to global burning. Although they release few greenhouse gases they damage the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity. They damage the Earth's life support system through the production process, but by far the biggest damage they create is through the developments they provoke. [29]

1.1.5: Solar Oceanic Plantships.

Solar plantships are a futuristic device for harnessing solar energy .. "ships which convert ocean thermal energy into electricity." [30] There are no further details.

1.1.6: Wind Power, (WP).

1.1.6.1: Types of Wind Energy.

1.1.6.1.1: Wind Energy on Land or Sea.

Wind energy can be collected either on land or at sea, "A large fraction of Britain's energy needs could be met with wind farms sited in the North Sea." [31]

1.1.6.1.2: Anthropogenic Wind Energy.

This section is included merely as a note concerning a rather bizarre source of energy, "Motorists of the future could have their electrically driven cars fuelled by the wind as they drive along the motorway. A brutish inventor, derek mcshane from merseyside, has patented a system for harnessing wind energy by placing "energy blades", linked to turbines, along the motorway central reservations. He believes that laser devices, powered by the wind created by passing traffic, could re-charge solar panels on cars driving in the charging lane. The system could also be used to power motorway lights and prevent roads icing up. Mr mcshane believes that his energy blades, placed alongside railway tracks and at airports, could produce a "colossal" amount of energy for the national grid by harnessing the wind created by the movement of trains and planes. So he has a lot of interest abroad but would like to see his invention developed in Britain." [32]

1.1.6.2: The Status of Wind Energy.

Wind power is a non-renewable form of energy. Given that global burning could bring about climatic changes it might not even be a sustainable form of energy.

1.1.6.3: The Spread of Wind Energy.

Wind power is one of the most popular forms of alternative energy, "Altogether the world had roughly 20,000 wind turbines in operation by the end of 1993, producing 3,000 megawatts of electricity." [33] "Wind power is now the world's fastest growing energy source, according to the worldwatch institute. Since 1990, wind power has risen 150% representing an annual growth rate of 20%." [34] "Global wind power generating capacity reached 2,976 megawatts in 1993, according to preliminary estimates, up 13% from a year earlier. Although wind power still supplies less than 0.1% of the world's electricity, it is one of the fastest growing energy sources. Roughly 20,000 wind turbines are now hooked into the world's electric power systems, 90% of them in California and Denmark .." [35] It has been estimated that, "Technically speaking, Britain could produce all its electricity from ecologically-sound wind power." [36]

The bigger the wind turbines the greater the electricity produced, "Laws of physics dictate that a doubling of size of a (wind) turbine brings a quadrupling of the power output." [37] The following sections cover wind pharms on land.

1.1.6.4: The Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral caused by Wind Power.

1.1.6.4.1: Mining, Processing, and Manufacturing.

The mining, processing, and manufacturing, of wind turbines release Carbon emissions.

1.1.6.4.2: Transportation.

The transportation of ores from mines to processors and then manufacturers; the transportation of wind power equipment from manufacturers to consumers or wind power stations, etc, release Carbon emissions.

1.1.6.4.3: Construction of Wind Power Stations.

The scale of wind power schemes varies between capital intensive, high-tech wind turbines laid out in extensive wind pharms to small, back garden, constructions. The bigger the wind power construction project, the greater the release of greenhouse gases; whilst the smaller the project, the lower the emissions.

1.1.6.4.4: Transmission of Electricity.

For the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of electricity see below.

1.1.6.5: The Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral caused by Wind Power.

1.1.6.5.1: Mining.

1.1.6.5.2: Manufacturing.

The manufacture of wind power equipment would take place in factories which suffocate the Earth's life support system.

1.1.6.5.3: Construction of Wind Power Stations.

The size of a wind power project determines the degree of damage it inflicts on the Earth's life support system. The larger the wind power project, the greater the damage; whilst the smaller the project, the less effect it has on the climate. This industry could cover an extensive area of land, "Wind energy appears poised to become a major source of electricity, and one of the largest manufacturing industries in the 21st century." [38]

1.1.6.5.3.1: Areas of Land Suffocated by Power Stations.

The amount of land required by wind pharms is greater than that required by conventional power stations producing the same amount of electricity. Dti figures on the electricity generated by 103 turbines at europe's largest wind farm at llandinam .. "show that a wind farm would take a year to produce the same power as that generated by an average-sized power station in two days." [39]

Just as critically, many wind pharms would be placed in areas of outstanding natural beauty, "17 wind farms now proposed in or near areas of outstanding natural beauty, national parks and heritage coasts. Over 140 of the 200-metre high turbines are planned." [40]

The landscaping of wind pharms is a critical factor in determining their overall impact on global warming. Unlike other, large scale, energy projects, wind pharms do not necessarily have to cement over the land on which they are constructed which destroy its Carbon absorbing properties. The land could continue to be cultivated or even allowed to become semi-wild.

1.1.6.5.2.2: Comparisons with other Power Stations.

"If you allow that each wind generator is rated at around 1 megawatt output - the generators must be spaced at some distance from one another. In theory they occupy about 3 acres each. So, to match a conventional power station a wind farm is likely to require some 3,000 acres." [41]

1.1.6.5.3: The Developments Triggered off by Wind Power.

Just as solar energy threatens to trigger off developments which destroy countryside/deserts/Wilderness areas so does wind power, "Wind turbines ... in vast stretches of the United States northern plains .. attract new industries into windswept regions." [42] This gives a clear idea of the scale of the environmental destruction that might be involved in the adoption of wind power.

1.1.6.5.4: Transmission of Electricity.

For the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of electricity see below.

1.1.6.6: Conclusions.

1.1.6.6.1: The Drawbacks of Wind Energy.

The main drawback of wind power, like solar cell energy, is its inability to produce a reliable flow of electricity when consumers require it, "The main problem for wind is that even at the best sites there is always a considerable probability that at a point in time most of the mills will be idle. This is taken to mean that wind cannot contribute more than 5-30% of the electricity needed." [43]

1.1.6.6.2: The Advantages of Wind Energy.

Wind generators come in all sizes. This gives it an important political advantage over other types of alternative energy in so far as it could be a decentralized form of energy. If wind power existed only as a decentralized form of energy it would cause less damage than many other forms of green energy.

Provided that only the most decentralized wind generators were used, wind power is likely to be much less unacceptable than most other forms of alternative energy. However, if highly centralized wind pharms were created it is possible they would not be better for the Earth's life support system than fossil fuels - wind pylons transmitting electricity for battery operated cars could just end up replacing oil wells.

1.1.7: Wave Energy, (WE).

1.1.7.1: The Spread of Wave Energy.

As yet, there are no full scale wave power projects in existence, "The world's first "real" wave power station, standing away from the land and on the seabed, is to be launched next month. The new station is called osprey .. and it will be launched on august 2nd. It is rated at two megawatts - six times the size of any built so far, but still only a stepping stone on the way to full scale power producers. It will be based 300 metres off dounreay .. " [44] It sunk in summer 1996.

The following sections provide a cursory mention of the types of damage that wave power could cause. There are so few examples to warrant further investigation.

1.1.7.2: The Damage to the Supply Side of the Carbon Spiral.

1.1.7.3: The Damage to the Demand Side of the Carbon Spiral.

1.1.7.3.1: Mining and Manufacturing.

Geophysiological damage would be caused by the mining and manufacturing of wave power equipment.

1.1.7.3.2: The Construction of Wave Power Stations.

The factories which manufacture wave energy machines would damage the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity.

1.1.7.3.3: Transportation.

Geophysiological damage would be caused by the transportation of the ores needed for the manufacture of wave power equipment; by the transportation of wave power equipment from the manufacturers to wave power sites.

1.1.7.3.4: Transmission of Electricity.

For the geophysiological damage caused by the transmission of electricity see below.

1.1.7.3.5: The Developments Triggered off by Wave Energy.

Just as solar/wind energies threaten to trigger off developments in the countryside so too does wave power.

1.1.7.4: The Advantages and Drawbacks of Wave Energy.

The exploitation of wave power would not release Carbon pollution and, because it is based at sea, would have a smaller impact on the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity than wind power. On the debit side, it would be a mass construction project which releases Carbon emissions and damages the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity. Wave power could be a long term source of energy but it would be no more reliable than wind power. It is not a renewable source of energy.