3.2: Background on the Earth’s Climate.

The previous section analyzed Forests’ multiple influences on the Earth’s climate. But Forests do not merely influence the climate, they also play a dynamic role in stabilizing the climate. Before exploring Forests’ role in stabilizing (and destabilizing) the climate, this section provides some background to highlight the main features of the Earth’s climate i.e. the critical role of Photosynthesis in stabilizing the Earth’s climate over the last few aeons.

3.2.1: Geolution; The Geophysiological Role of Photosynthesizers in Stabilizing the Climate.

3.2.1.1: The Critical Role Played by Photosynthesizers in Stabilizing the Climate.

Some four and a half billion years ago, when the Earth was formed, the atmosphere contained little oxygen but colossal quantities of Carbon. Most of the Earth’s surface was covered in water, only a small number of basaltic islands created by volcanic eruptions poked through a global ocean. The Earth’s global average temperatures were very high even though the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth was 25-30% weaker than it is at present. The combination of a high concentration of Carbon in the atmosphere and increasing solar energy should have meant that, over the aeons, the Earth’s global temperature should have soared. The reason it has not was the emergence of Photosynthesizers, first in the seas and then on land, which extracted huge quantities of Carbon from the atmosphere and reduced the greenhouse effect. If it wasn’t for Photosynthesizers, the Earth’s current temperature would be in triple figures - what it should be for a planet lying between mars and venus.

Photosynthesizers’ extraction of Carbon from the atmosphere not only guaranteed the survival of life on Earth, it has brought dramatic changes on Earth. The vast bulk of the Carbon which was in the atmosphere now covers the surface of the land and large sections of the ocean floor. There are currently only trace quantities of Carbon in the atmosphere. However, the atmosphere now contains huge quantities of oxygen. If there were no Photosynthesizers on Earth most of the Carbon that was originally in the atmosphere would still be there and there would be virtually no oxygen in the atmosphere. Only relatively small amounts of atmospheric Carbon would have been deposited on the seabed via the lengthy process of diffusion, “Were life not present, the Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere would have to reach the calcium silicate of the rocks by slow inorganic processes like diffusion.” [1] Throughout the bulk of the Earth’s history Photosynthesizers have played the critical role in extracting Carbon from the atmosphere, reducing global temperatures, countering the sun’s increasing luminosity, and thus stabilizing the Earth’s climate.

3.2.1.2: The Emergence of New Photosynthesizers.

The first Photosynthesizers were marine Micro-organisms. Over the aeons, as continents began to form, terrestrial Photosynthesizers began to emerge. It wasn’t until about 400 million years ago, in the mid-paleozoic, that Trees emerged. Photosynthesizers continued to extract Carbon from the atmosphere but, according to james lovelock, by the start of the miocene age, about 10 million years ago, they had extracted so much Carbon from the atmosphere a new type of Photosynthesizer emerged, the C4 Grasses, which could survive under such spartan conditions. These Photosynthesizers could function better than the earlier C3 Plants (which includes Trees) in low Carbon atmospheres. [2] During the miocene age, Grasses have been playing an increasingly significant role.

Lovelock believes that if the trend of declining concentrations of atmospheric Carbon had persisted (ignoring oomans’ impact on the climate) then C4 Grasses would eventually overtake Trees as the Earth’s main Photosynthesizer. If Grasses continued to reduce the concentration of Carbon in the atmosphere then Trees would not be able to survive. Lovelock has estimated that, in turn, in about a hundred million years time, C4 grasses would also become redundant as the last remnants of Carbon in the atmosphere disappeared, “Not surprising is the emergence in the miocene, some 10 million years ago, of a new type of green Plant able to grow at lower Carbon dioxide concentrations. These plants have a different biochemistry and are called C4 plants to distinguish them from the mainstream C3 Plants. The C4 Plants are able to Photosynthesize at much lower Carbon dioxide levels than older C3 Plants. The new C4 Plants include some, but not all Grasses, whereas Trees and broad leaved plants generally use the C3 cycle. Eventually, and probably suddenly, these new Plants will take over and run an even lower Carbon dioxide atmosphere to compensate for the increasing solar heat. But it will serve only temporarily, because in as short a time as 100 million years, assuming nothing else has changed, the sun will have warmed up enough to require a zero Carbon dioxide atmosphere to maintain the present temperature.” [3] Lovelock believes that, roughly, in a hundred million years time, the role of Photosynthesizers in stabilizing the climate would become redundant and the Earth would have to adapt a new climate stabilization system which did not rely on Photosynthesis. Since the start of the pleistocene period, the role of the Earth’s Photosynthesizers in stabilizing the climate has become much less less effective than it was in the past but it is having to operate in a low Carbon atmosphere.

3.2.1.3: Geolution - Explaining the Appearance and Disappearance of Photosynthsizers.

One of the interesting facets of lovelock’s views is that he seems to have abandoned the concept of evolution to explain the appearance and disappearance of Photosynthesizers. The state of the climate seems to be a more important influence on the emergence and development of Photosynthesizers than evolution. Over the aeons, there may have been many Photosynthetic innovations brought about by genetic mutations but only those which helped the Earth to combat the sun’s increasing luminosity were able to flourish. Thus Trees were not so much an evolutionary innovation as a climatic innovation responding to the Earth's need to extract Carbon from the atmosphere to stabilize the climate. The Biodiversification of Photosynthesizers has been influenced not so much by evolution as by, for want of a better term, geolution.

3.2.2: The Strange Inversion of the Climatic Role of Photosynthesis during the Quartenary Ice Ages.

3.2.2.1: The Earth Creates an Ice Age to Combat Increasing Solar Radiation.

For aeons, Photosynthesizers extracted Carbon from the Earth’s atmosphere, reduced the greenhouse effect, and thus countered the sun’s increasing radiation. Lovelock argues that between five and two million years ago, Photosynthesizers extracted so much Carbon from the atmosphere they triggered off an ice age. It seems the Earth could counter the increasing intensity of solar radiation only by provoking an ice age. What was peculiar about this ice age was that Photosynthesizers did not decline during this time. On the contrary, there was an increase in Photosynthesis which prolonged the ice age - when much of the northern hemisphere was covered in ice sheets. [4]

3.2.2.2: The Inversion of the Climatic Function of Photosynthesis.

There are reasons for believing the first quartenary ice age should not have lasted. It should have caused a decline in Photosynthesis, leading to a rise in the concentration of atmospheric Carbon and a rise in global temperatures. If this had happened the Earth would have had great difficulty in provoking the cooler conditions it needed to counter the long term increases in solar radiation. Fortunately for the Earth this was not the case.

As Photosynthesizers extracted Carbon from the atmosphere, global average temperatures fell and ice sheets spread across the north american and euro-asian continents. Strangely, this brought about an increase in Photosynthesis which caused global temperatures to fall even further and thus helped to boost the spread of the northern ice sheets - thereby strengthening the Earth’s capability for resisting further increases in solar radiation. Given that Photosynthesis declines when temperatures fall, it seems anomalous that there was an increase in Photosynthesis as the Earth’s climate got colder. Lovelock points out, “Laboratory experiments show that land Plants and marine Algae grow best when the temperature is about 22C, well above the Earth’s mean temperature of 15C. Further heating should therefore lead to more growth and consequently a negative feedback on temperature. The reason it does not is because the ideal temperature for the superorganism, Gaia, is not the same as that for plant growth, but lower.” [5] Lovelock’s view is that the Earth’s current ideal temperature is 10C. This is significantly below the current average temperature of 15C. It is 8C below the global average temperatures which produce maximum Photosynthetic productivity. It is 12C below the temperature at which plant’s flourish, in laboratories, at peak Photosynthetic efficiency. Perhaps the simplest way of explaining this anomaly is by distinguishing between the rate, and the scale, of Photosynthesis. The former concerns the efficiency of Photosynthesis whilst the latter concerns the spread of Phytomass around the Earth.

3.2.2.3: The Distinction between the Rate and the Scale of Photosynthesis Carried out by the Earth's Forests.

There is a critical distinction between the rate, and the scale, of Photosynthesis. The rate of Photosynthesis is the rate at which Photosynthesizers extract Carbon from the atmosphere at various global temperatures. The rate of Photosynthesis decreases when temperatures fall and increases as temperatures rise. It is believed the rate of Photosynthesis goes on increasing until global average temperatures reach 18C, the point of maximum Photosynthetic efficiency, but thereafter the rate declines. (In laboratories, peak Photosynthetic efficiency is about 22C). Conversely, the colder the temperatures, the less efficient Photosynthesis becomes. Geophysiologically, this means the rate of Photosynthesis has a cybernetic role in stabilizing the Earth’s climate. As the Earth’s temperature rises up to 18C, there is an increase in the rate at which Photosynthesis extracts Carbon from the atmosphere and this decreases global temperatures. Conversely, as the Earth’s temperature falls there is a decrease in the rate of Photosynthesis which allows the build up of Carbon in the atmosphere thereby boosting global temperatures.

The scale of Photosynthesis is the area of land around the Earth covered in Forests. In contrast to the rate of Photosynthesis, the scale of the Earth’s Forest cover increases as global temperatures fall and, decreases as temperatures rise. When global temperatures start moving towards, or dipping below, 10C there is an increase in the spread of Photosynthesizers around the Earth. But when global temperatures rise towards, or above, 10C there is a decrease in the spread of Photosynthesizers. The warmer the climate, the smaller the scale of Photosynthesis around the Earth, the greater the boost to global warming. Conversely, the colder the Earth, the greater the scale of Photosynthesis, the greater the global cooling. Whilst the rate of Photosynthesis acts cybernetically to stabilize the climate, the scale of Photosynthesis destabilizes the climate. This seems to defy common sense. How does the scale of Photosynthesis increase when global temperatures are declining and decrease when global temperatures are rising?

3.2.2.4: The Scale of Photosynthesis across the Temperature Range.

3.2.2.4.1: When the Earth’s Temperature is 10C or Below.

When the Photosynthetic extraction of Carbon from the atmosphere pushes the Earth’s temperature downwards to 10C and triggers off an ice age, two geophysiological factors cause an increase in the scale of Photosynthesis which boosts global cooling.

Falling Ocean Levels Boosting Terrestrial Photosynthesis.

As the Earth gets colder, ice sheets spread across the amero-euro-asian continents. This causes a substantial drop in sea levels around the Earth and exposes more and more land along coastal areas in the tropics. Whilst ice sheets obliterate Forests across a huge expanse of the northern hemisphere, a large number of Forests begin to grow along the coastal fringes emerging in the tropics. The area of Forests gained in the tropics by the drop in the level of the oceans is greater than the area of Forests lost by the spread of ice sheets across the northern continents. This produces a net increase in the scale of global Photosynthesis which increases the amount of Carbon extracted from the atmosphere and brings about a further fall in global temperatures .. “the low Carbon dioxide during the glacials can be explained by the presence of a larger or more efficient biota. There must have been more living organisms on Earth; how else could the Carbon dioxide have been so low? If more organisms were doing the pumping, where were they? At first thought it might seem that the ice sheets would leave less room for life as it covered much of what is now, or was before humans, forested land. However, as water was used to form the land based glaciers, the level of the sea could have fallen by some 100 meters, exposing vast areas of land on the continental shelves ready for colonization by Plants. A glance at a map of the continental shelves reveals that much of the new land would have been in the humid tropics, such as in present day southeast asia. It could have covered an area comparable with that of africa now, and could have supported extensive Plant growth.” [6]

Boosting Algal Photosynthesis.

The second major factor boosting Photosynthesis is the growth in marine Algae. The increase in marine Algae reduces global temperatures in three ways. Firstly, as temperatures fall the stratification of the oceans into layers of warm and cold water begins to disappear and ocean currents drag nutrients from the seabed to the surface where they are consumed by Algae. When the Algae die their shells drop to the ocean floor resulting in the burial of Carbon. Secondly, Algae release dimethly sulphide which triggers off the formation of clouds further boosting global cooling. Thirdly, some of the sulphur emissions released by marine organisms are blown onto the land fertilizing terrestrial Phytomass, further reducing the greenhouse effect, “Sulphur is scarce on the land and this new source could have enhanced the growth of Plants. The increased growth would increase rock weathering and so increase the flow of nutrients to the ocean.” [7]

In conclusion, lovelock argues that during an ice age there is an increase in both terrestrial and marine Photosynthesis which exacerbates global cooling. The cooler the Earth’s temperature, the greater the Photosynthesis, the greater the global cooling, the greater the Earth’s ability to combat the long term rise in solar radiation.

3.2.2.4.2: When the Earth’s Temperature Rises above 10C.

Having looked at what happens to Photosynthesis when temperatures drop below 10C, this section examines what happens when the Earth’s temperature rises above 10C.

The Scale of Photosynthesis.

As the Earth warms, the amero-euro-asian ice sheets retreat and there is a rise in ocean levels. Forests begin to reappear in the regions of retreating ice sheets, whilst Forests on the coastal shelves of the tropics drown under the rising oceans. The net result is a decline in the scale of the Earth’s Forest cover. This boosts the greenhouse effect. As regards marine Photosynthesis; the rise in the Earth’s temperature produces oceanic stratification preventing nutrients from the ocean floor from reaching marine Algae on the surface of the ocean. This reduces the amount of Carbon they can extract from the atmosphere; decreases marine cloud cover; and reduces sulphur’s fertilization of terrestrial Phytomass - all of which boost global warming. Overall, then, when global temperatures rise, there is a decrease in the scale of Photosynthesis which boosts global warming and contributes to the destabilization of the climate.

The Rate of Photosynthesis.

As far as the rate of Photosynthesis is concerned, rising temperatures produce an increase in Photosynthetic efficiency. This leads to the extraction of more Carbon from the atmosphere which thus counters global warming.

Comparing the Scale and Rate of Photosynthesis.

The scale of Photosynthesis has a bigger impact on global temperatures than the rate of Photosynthesis. Thus, when global temperatures fall below 10C, the increase in the scale of Photosynthesis has a bigger impact on global temperatures than the decline in the rate of Photosynthesis. The net effect is an increase in the total amount of Photosynthesis carried out on Earth which thus boosts global cooling. Once the Earth’s temperature falls below 10C the climate develops a momentum towards increasing global cooling - a destabilization of the climate.

Conversely, when global temperatures rise above 10C, the decline in the scale of Photosynthesis around the Earth is more substantial than the increase in the rate of Photosynthesis. The net effect is a drop in the total amount of Photosynthesis carried out on Earth which thus boosts global warming. Once the Earth’s temperature rises above 10C the climate develops a momentum towards increasing global warming - a destabilization of the climate.

3.2.2.4.3: When the Earth’s Temperature Rises above 18C.

Finally, when the Earth’s temperature reaches 18C the rate of Photosynthesis begins to decline and many of the Earth’s terrestrial Photosynthesizers start to die off. According to lovelock and kump .. “the contribution from land to the stabilizing of global temperatures is from vegetation drawing down Carbon dioxide. As temperatures increase, so Plants suffer from drying out of soils and from water stress. Their efficiency in taking Carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere is thereby significantly reduced. Terrestrial vegetation will lose its ability to regulate the climate once the average surface temperature reaches around 18C - ipcc estimates that a century from now, the Earth will have temperatures close to that critical point.” [8] It is predicted that if global temperatures rise above 18C both the scale and the rate of Photosynthesis would go into decline giving a double boost to global warming and thus opening the throttle for the destabilization of the climate. Global warming could accelerate out of control. Ooman civilization is just 3C away from the point where the Earth’s main climate stabilizing factor becomes ineffective and starts contributing to the destabilization of the climate.

3.2.2.4.4: Conclusions.

Climatic Instability Helps to Stabilize the Climate.

Lovelock’s suggests that the scale of Photosynthesis has far more of an influence on the Earth’s climate than the rate of Photosynthesis. This is crucial because whilst the rate of Photosynthesis has a cybernetic relationship with the climate, the scale of Photosynthesis does not. For aeons, Photosynthesizers have helped to stabilize the climate but now that the scale of Photosynthesis has such a dominant influence on the climate it virtually turns the climate moderating role of Photosynthesizers inside out so that instead of stabilizing the climate they destabilize it. Paradoxically, however, if the increasing scale of Photosynthesis did not destabilize the climate by boosting global cooling, the Earth would have no way of combating the sun’s increasing solar radiation. In effect the climatic ‘instability’ created by the scale of Photosynthesis, in so much as it reinforces the rise or fall of global temperatures, actually helps to stabilize the Earth’s climate. In other words, the Earth counters the sun’s increasing output by ‘destabilizing’ the climate. The tendency of the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity to reinforce falling global temperatures and destabilize the climate is a serious breech in the geophysiological theory that life stabilizes the climate, for although the fall in global temperatures counters the sun’s increasing luminosity and stabilizes the climate, the scale of Photosynthesis increases only because of ‘accidental’ factors such as the rise and fall of the oceans and oceanic stratification. If the oceans did not rise and fall, the scale of terrestrial Photosynthesis would not change; and if oceanic stratification did not occur then the scale of marine Photosynthesis would not change either.

The Point of Climatic Stability.

According to lovelock, given the current intensity of solar radiation, the Earth’s climate is at its most stable when global temperatures are around 10C i.e. during an ice age. This point of climatic stability is not, however, like a centre of gravity for all the geophysiological factors influencing the climate. On the contrary, once global temperatures move away from this point i.e. global warming or global cooling, the scale of the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity reinforces these centrifugal trends. If global average temperatures are rising, the scale of Photosynthesis boosts the momentum of global warming, whilst if global average temperatures are falling the scale of Photosynthesis boosts the momentum of global cooling. Either way, the scale of Photosynthesis forces the Earth’s climate into greater instabilities. The only way that a change in the scale of Photosynthesis can be stopped from destabilizing the Earth’s climate is if it is countered by other, more powerful, geophysiological factors.

3.2.2.5: The Succession of Ice Ages and Inter-glacials in the Quartenary Period.

A few million years ago an increase in the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity induced an ice age which combated the long term increase in solar radiation. However, this ice age did not persist. It was followed by a warmer period. This warming became known as an inter-glacial when, in turn, it was followed by another ice age. The Earth’s climate has been fluctuating between ice ages and inter-glacials during the whole of the quartenary period, "The present oscillations to and from a glacial state are recent: up until 2 million years ago, the climate was much more constant." [9] ; “The pleistocene is remarkable not just for the alternation of warm and cold phases but for the scale and rapidity of the changes. At least 20 glacial/interglacial cycles are known to have occurred .. At least eight previous ice ages are known ranging through geological time from the jurassic, around 150 m years ago, to the pre-cambrian, 2,300 million years ago and beyond. Significantly, all of these earlier ice ages lasted for longer - up to 50 m years - than the two million years of the quaternary ice age.” [10] The last ice age started 130-120,000 years ago and ended a mere 10,000 years ago. [11] "Ice ages tend to last for 100,000 years. The spell between them, usually, lasts for 10,000 years." [12] There have been 10 in the last million years. [13] So, despite the increase in the scale of Photosynthesis causing a deepening of ice ages, the ice ages weren’t powerful enough to ensure their continuation.

3.2.2.6: The Climatic Instability of Inter-Glacials.

For lovelock the point of climatic stability is approximately 10C i.e. the Earth’s climate is in a stable and healthy state when there is an ice age. Conversely, it is in an unstable and unhealthy state during inter-glacials, “Geophysiology suggests that to regulate the climate in the face of increasing heat from the sun, glacials are the normal state and the inter-glacials like now, are the pathological one.” [14] Lovelock looks upon the present inter-glacial as an aberration, “The present interglacial warm period could be regarded as a fever for gaia and that left to herself she would be relaxing into her normal, comfortable for her, ice age.” [15] "The recurrent warm spells now experienced are the pathology of a form of Planetary senescence." [16] ; “If I am right that self regulation proceeds most efficiently at glacial temperatures, then the interglacials like the present one represent some temporary failure of regulation, a fevered state of the planet for the present ecosystem. How do they come about? Active systems of regulation or control are well known to exhibit instability when close to the limit of their operating range.” [17]

Over the past few million years, the oscillations between glacials and interglacials have been triggered off by astronomic forcing as a result of the variations in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth as its swings in varying orbits around the sun. The influence of these short term, astronomic, changes in solar radiation on the Earth’s climate has been decisive not because astronomic solar radiation has been powerful enough to over-ride the Earth’s climate regulation system but because the latter is so weak .. “close to the limit of their operating range” that even minuscule changes in astronomical solar radiation have had a considerable impact on the Earth’s climate. It is the Earth’s current climate instability which permits minuscule changes in astronomical solar radiation to have so much impact on the climate, "That the system is stressed is evidenced by the fact that even the small additional flux of heat that occurs when the milankovich effect brings the Earth closer to the sun, is enough to destabilize the healthy glacial state and bring on the fever of an interglacial." [18]

Over the last two million years the climate has become increasingly unstable (ignoring the role played by oomans) because the Earth has failed to establish a permanent ice age to offset long term solar heating. Lovelock believes that beyond the climatic instability caused by astronomic solar radiation -induced oscillations into, and out of, ice ages there is an even deeper climatic instability caused by the fading influence of Photosynthesis as the Earth’s climate stabilization system and the failure of a new climate stabilization system to replace it.

3.2.3: The Creation of a New Climate Stabilization System.

Assuming, once again, that oomans did not exist, the time would come when there would be virtually no Carbon in the atmosphere for Photosynthesizers to extract. This would mean it would no longer be possible to reduce the greenhouse effect. Thus, as the sun’s luminosity increases, the Earth would start to burn up. This outcome cannot be avoided. But, lovelock suggests, it might be delayed if a new system of climate regulation was to develop - although he has no idea what this new system might look like, "Failure of the present system will not mean the death of the Planet, only a change in the method of regulation, or more probably a shift to a new stable hot state. Nobody knows what other systems for cooling will evolve." [19]

The Earth’s life support system is currently in a state of instability because the Earth’s climate regulation system, which has served it well for the last few aeons, has reached the end of its useful life. Although in the long distant future Photosynthesis would no longer be the primary means of stabilizing the Earth’s climate, it would still be helpful for extracting any Carbon injected into the atmosphere - but whether it would survive that long is another matter.

3.2.4: The Holocene; Oomans adding to the Earth’s Climatic Instability.

Given that the critical point for the stability of the Earth’s climate is currently 10C and that the climate becomes increasingly destabilized as global temperatures move further away from this point, then the present climate is in a highly unstable state. The Earth’s current average temperature is 15C - a massive 5C beyond its point of stability. If oomans continue to dump greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and devastate the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity, the climate will continue to warm and it will not be long before global temperatures reach 18C - the point at which the climate moderating role of the rate of Photosynthesis starts to decline. Thereafter Photosynthesis will no longer provide any help in combating global burning - on the contrary, both the rate and the scale of Photosynthesis would lend their weight to boosting the momentum of global burning. The Earth’s current climate is, geophysiologically, in a state of long term instability and to this oomans are now adding their own elements of instability by boosting the amount of Carbon in the atmosphere and devastating the a critical part of the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity which, for the last 300 million years, has played a major role in stabilizing the Earth’s climate i.e. Forests. Lovelock warns that there is a threat of global warming developing a runaway momentum when global temperatures reach 18C, “Such a world is inherently unstable. If a warming trend, as by the milankovitch effect, led to a decrease of land area, then increased Carbon dioxide together with the geophysiological feedback of a diminution in the area of reflective ice and snow cover would lead to a runaway rise of both temperature and Carbon dioxide.” [20] He warns about further disruptions during an unstable climate, “Much more serious than the direct and predictable effects of adding Carbon dioxide to a stable system are the consequences of disturbing a system that is precariously balanced at the limits of stability.” [21]

3.3: Forests’ Geophysiological Role in Moderating Climate Trends.

The previous section looked at the Earth’s two Photosynthetic climate stabilization systems: the one that existed over the first few aeons of the Earth’s geological history which was dominated by the rate of Photosynthesis and the one that emerged at the start of the quartenary period which is dominated by the scale of Photosynthesis. Earlier sections explored the many different influences that Forests have on the climate. This section tries to highlight the way that these influences either stabilize, or destabilize, the climate. In order to do this it is necessary to cover all the possible scenarios for climate change (i.e. global freezing or global burning) and then explore what influences Forests would have in each of these scenarios. In other words, this section explores the totality of Forests’ relationships to the climate during the special conditions which prevail during the quartenary period. This first section explores Forests’ contribution to the moderation of the climate (i.e. the moderation of global burning and global cooling) whilst the next examines the way Forests exacerbate climate change (i.e. boost global burning and global cooling).

3.3.1: Explanatory Note.

Two points need to be made about the following outline of the totality of Forests’ relationship with the climate. Firstly, the terminological peculiarities. Prior to the quartenary period Forests played a role in moderating rising/falling global temperatures and thus helping to stabilize the climate. During the quartenary period, Forests started reinforcing the rise/fall in global temperatures. By helping to drive down global temperatures, Forests countered the long term increase in solar radiation and thus helped to stabilize the climate. Whilst it may seem as if the moderation of climate trends may help to stabilize the climate this is not true in the case of the moderation of global cooling because this would prevent the Earth from countering the long term increase in solar radiation. Conversely, whilst it may seem as if the reinforcing or exacerbation of climate trends is helping to destabilize the climate this is not true where the exacerbation of global cooling is concerned because this helps to counter the long term increases in solar radiation.

The following sections present a matrix of the four basic climate conditions.

The moderation of global warming - which helps to stabilize the climate

The moderation of global cooling - which helps to destabilize the climate

The exacerbation of global warming - which helps to destabilize the climate

The exacerbation of global cooling - which helps to stabilize the climate.

Whilst the term ‘moderation’ may carry connotations of helping to stabilize the climate and whilst the term ‘exacerbation’ may also carry connotations of helping to destabilize the climate, neither is true because of the Earth’s need to continually cool itself to combat increasing solar radiation.

The second point is the perspective from which this work is written. There is a temptation to believe the Earth’s current climate is the optimum climate - after all, the climate has been relatively stable for the last 10,000 years. Most conventional climate scientists take it for granted that the current climate is at its optimal as if they were all guided by the belief that ‘the present world is the best possible world’. Once again this generates problems with the terms ‘climatic stabilization’ and ‘destabilization’. If the Earth’s current climate is regarded as optimum then anything which moves away from this state is deemed to be destabilizing and, conversely, any factor which pushes the climate back to this optimum state is deemed to be stabilizing the climate. However, this work follows lovelock’s proposition that the Earth’s optimum climate is an ice age - the Earth requires to be cooled in the face of the long term increase in solar radiation. Thus any factor which pushes the climate towards this optimum is categorized as stabilizing the climate, whilst those factors pushing the Earth away from this optimum are categorized as destabilizing the climate. In other words, this work looks at the climate from the Earth’s point of view, not oomans’, and certainly not livestock consumers’. The political, social, and economic, consequences of the Earth’s changing climate are not explored in this work. Whilst an ice age may be a climatic disaster for large numbers of oomans it is the best means for ensuring the long term stabilization of the Earth’s climate.

3.3.2: Forests’ Roles in Moderating Global Warming.

There are various ways in which Forests help to moderate the climate in a period of global warming. This section could be taken as a further contribution to the scientific case for Reforestation as a means of combating global burning.

3.3.2.1: The Photosynthetic Effect.

This section explores the ways in which Forests moderate the Photosynthetic effect when global temperatures are rising.

3.3.2.1.1: The Increase in the Rate of Forests’ Photosynthesis up to 18C.

The rate of Photosynthesis has a cybernetic role in moderating the Earth’s climate. As global temperatures rise there is an increase in Forests’ Photosynthesis which results in an increase in the extraction of Carbon from the atmosphere and this moderates the greenhouse effect. However, as global temperatures rise towards 18C the moderating influence of the rate of Photosynthesis begins to decline. When global average temperatures rise above 18C Forests would no longer contribute to the moderation of global burning.

If there was a sudden huge influx of Carbon into the atmosphere - say as a result of a volcanic eruption - this would boost the greenhouse effect and increase global temperatures. However, the increase in global temperatures would be moderated by an increase in the rate of Photosynthesis extracting more Carbon from the atmosphere. But since the extraction of Carbon through Photosynthesis is a response to a rise in Carbon emissions, the initial boost to global temperatures would always be greater than the secondary, moderating effect. Half of the Carbon released into the atmosphere would still be there a century later so the moderation would occur only over a very long period of time.

3.3.2.1.2: Photosynthesizers Conserve Water Vapour and Reduce Cloud Cover.

There are scientists who believe that as global temperatures rise Plants might conserve more and more water, “According to results published yesterday, Plants may respond to extra Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by conserving water. This would create a drier world, with fewer clouds and less rainfall, scientists said yesterday. Although the rainfall cycle depends on evaporation of seas and lakes, huge quantities of water are transpired through the leaves of Plants. (In the experiments Carbon rich atmospheres produced a reduction in) the transpiration of water by 9%. The implication is that there would be less water for cloud formation and a reduction of rainfall by 6%. This was the reverse of computer models, which suggested a warmer, wetter world.” [22] If this turns out to be the case it would reduce the greenhouse effect of water vapour thereby moderating global temperatures. But, it would also mean reducing the scale of clouds and this would boost global warming. It is not known which of these two phenomena would have the biggest impact on the climate.

3.3.2.1.3: Forests’ Contribution to Rock Weathering.

Lovelock believes the major means of permanently burying Carbon is rock weathering. Forests are involved in rock weathering. Firstly by releasing vast quantities of water vapour which dissolve Carbon in the atmosphere creating Carbonic acid. Secondly, by extracting Carbon from the atmosphere and then pumping it through Trees’ roots into the Soil. Forests make a huge contribution to rock weathering. When global temperatures rise, Forests release more water vapour and pump more Carbon through their roots into the soil. Both of these factors boost rock weathering which, eventually, reduces the greenhouse effect - a negative feedback effect stabilizing the climate. Given the importance of rock weathering for removing Carbon from the atmosphere then Forests are one of the major factors moderating global warming and thus helping to stabilize the Earth’s climate.

3.3.2.1.4: Forest Fires and the Creation of Charcoal.

Rising global temperatures produce more Forest fires and thus more charcoal. Charcoal permanently removes Carbon from the atmosphere because it cannot be recycled by micro-organisms and returned to the atmosphere. This moderates global warming.

3.3.2.1.5: Forest Soil Decomposition.

The warmer the climate, the greater the soil decomposition. This releases nutrients into the soil which boost Tree growth which, by extracting more Carbon from the atmosphere, moderates the greenhouse effect, “Another possibility is that higher temperatures would increase rates of organic decomposition, which in turn would release nutrients to the soil and thus potentially boost the productivity of Trees.” [23] However, if the rise in global temperatures leads to soils drying out this will cause the release of Carbon into the atmosphere thereby boosting the greenhouse effect.

3.3.2.2: The Greenhouse Effect.

This section explores the ways in which Forests moderate the greenhouse effect when global temperatures are rising.

3.3.2.2.1: Forest Fires Release Nutrients which boost Photosynthesis.

It is likely that rising temperatures will trigger off more Forest fires. Forest fires release Carbon into the atmosphere which boosts the greenhouse effect. However, they also have a number of impacts which moderate global burning. Forest fires release aerosols into the atmosphere. Aerosols contain nutrients which, when they fall back to Earth, stimulate terrestrial and marine Photosynthesis thereby reducing the greenhouse effect, “If iron controls the productivity of the oceans and thereby the natural level of atmospheric CO₂ it follows that iron supply to the oceans could affect global temperatures through the heat trapping properties of CO₂. Iron in the surface ocean comes mostly from dust in the atmosphere, soaked up from deserts or other arid regions.

3.3.2.2.2: Nutrients from Forest Fires stimulates Marine Algae which boosts the Albedo Effect of Clouds.

The nutrients released by Forest fires boost the growth of marine Algae. This has a knock-on effect which moderates global burning. Marine Algae release dimethyl sulphide which stimulates cloud formation thereby cooling the Earth, “Winds blow the dust from the arid land out over the oceans, where the iron in the dust helps marine organisms to grow. One effect of this is that plankton thrive, absorbing carbon dioxide, turning it into carbonates in their shells, and dropping it onto the sea floor when they die. Another is that marine algae thrive, increasing the cloud cover of the planet - and clouds reflect away some of the heat of the Sun.” [24]

3.3.2.2.3: Tree Decomposition.

A rise in global temperatures increases the decomposition of dead or dying Trees. This has two effects; an increase in Carbon emissions and an increase in nutrients returning to the soil. The first boosts the greenhouse effect whilst the second increases Tree growth and moderates global warming, “Another possibility is that higher temperatures would increase rates of organic decomposition, which in turn would release nutrients to the soil and thus potentially boost the productivity of Trees.” [25] The relative strengths of these two climatic effects is not known.

3.3.2.3: The Albedo Effect.

This section explores the contribution of Forests’ albedo effects to the moderation of global burning. It needs to be borne in mind that an increase in global temperatures increases the scale of the taiga Forests but decreases the scale of Rainforests - producing an overall decline in the Earth’s Forest cover.

3.3.2.3.1: The Albedo Effect of the Cloud Cover Created by Forests.

If there is an increase in global temperatures there will be an increase in the scale of the taiga Forest which will boost cloud cover and thus decrease temperatures. However, there will also be a decline in tropical Forests which will reduce cloud cover and thus boost global warming. It is not known what the net effect will be.

3.3.2.3.2: The Albedo Effect of the Aerosols released by Forest Fires.

As global temperatures rise, there are likely to be more Forest fires, releasing more aerosols into the atmosphere. The albedo effect of these aerosols reduces global temperatures - a negative feedback factor stabilizing the climate.

3.3.2.4: The Heat Effect.

The warmer that global temperatures become, the smaller the scale of tropical Rainforests, the less solar energy they absorbed. This cools the Earth and stabilizes the climate. However, the warmer the global temperatures, the greater the scale of the taiga Forests, the greater the solar energy they absorb, the greater the heat effect. It is not known what the overall impact of these two Forest systems will be.

It has just been argued that a rise in global temperatures increases the scale of the taiga Forest and thus increases the absorption of solar radiation. However, it has also been argued, that rising global temperatures could damage the taiga Forest and thus moderate global temperatures, “Boreal Forests are likely to have the hardest time in terms of climate change because they are in the regions where the temperature is expected to rise faster than anywhere else 4-5C above current temperatures.” [26] It is also possible, of course, that as global temperatures rise, the taiga will not change size at all, it will simply migrate northwards to remain in the temperature band where it is most comfortable.

3.3.2.5: Conclusions about Forests’ Roles in Moderating Global Warming.

This analysis of Forests’ roles in moderating global warming is far from comprehensive or conclusive. The biggest contribution comes from Forests’ Photosynthesis. The scale of Forests’ Photosynthesis makes no contribution to moderating global warming - on the contrary, it exacerbates global warming. However, the rate of Photosynthesis helps to moderate global warming. However, this effect begins to wane as global temperatures rise towards 18C, and disappears thereafter. If global average temperatures move beyond 18C, both the rate and scale of Photosynthesis boost global burning. Forests’ albedo, and heat, effects contribute to the moderation of global burning but this contribution declines with rising global temperatures.

The multiplicity of Forests’ impacts on the climate pull in various directions and this makes it difficult to assess Forests’ contribution to moderating rising temperatures. Once global temperatures have passed 18C it is likely that Forests could no longer provide any help in moderating rising temperatures. On the contrary, they are likely to start contributing to a runaway global burning disaster.

3.3.3: Forests’ Roles in Moderating Global Cooling.

This section looks at the ways in which Forests could moderate global cooling. This section has no current relevance but it is important to understand the full nature of the relationship between Forests and the climate.

It has already been explained above that, in the pleistocene period, Forests played a major role in exacerbating global cooling. However, Forests also have some features that moderate global cooling. Whilst the moderation of global cooling from a ooman perspective would be regarded as a benefit, from the perspective of the Earth itself, it is not. The moderation of global cooling prevents the emergence of the ice ages the Earth needs to combat the long term rise in solar radiation. The moderation of global cooling is likely to destabilize the climate.

3.3.3.1: The Photosynthetic Effect.

3.3.3.1.1: The Rate of Forest Photosynthesis from 18C Downwards.

As global temperatures fall there is a decrease in the rate of Photosynthesis. This leaves more Carbon in the atmosphere and thus boosts the greenhouse effect. The ipcc would argue that this is a negative feedback effect stabilizing the climate whereas, from the Earth’s perspective, this moderation of global cooling is a destabilizing influence on the climate. As global temperatures fall, there is an increase in the scale of Photosynthesis which boosts global cooling. It is a more powerful factor than the rate of Photosynthesis so the net result is to boost global cooling and stabilize the climate.

3.3.3.1.2: Tree Decomposition: Returning Nutrients to the Soil.

When the Earth’s temperature falls, there is a decline in Tree decomposition. This reduces the release of Carbon emissions which cools the Earth. However, there is also a reduction in the nutrients returning to the soil which produces a decline in Tree growth and thus boosts global warming. The relative strengths of these two opposing climatic effects is not known.

3.3.3.1.3: Soil Decomposition.

When the climate cools there is a decrease in soil decomposition. This causes a decline in Tree growth which boosts the greenhouse effect, moderating global cooling.

3.3.3.1.4: A Net Decrease in Forests as the Ice Sheets Spread.

As global temperatures fall, the scale of global Photosynthesis increases - it increases in tropical Forests but declines in the taiga Forests. However, it is possible there might come a point when there is no further net increase in the scale of tropical Photosynthesis i.e. if the fall in the level of the Earth’s oceans does not generate more land in the tropics than is being lost under ice sheets on the amero-euro-asian continents. If this happened it would moderate global cooling.

3.3.3.1.5: Forests Contributing to Rock Weathering.

Falling global temperatures would cause a decrease in Forests’ rate of rock weathering which would lead to a reduction in the deposition of Carbon on the seabed. This would allow a build up of greenhouse gases which would moderate global cooling, "Chemical weathering acts as a sink for Carbon, locking it up in limestone. Chemical weathering, transforming calcium silicates to Carbonates, stabilizes the climate, removing more CO₂ when the climate is warmer and less when it is cooler." [27]

3.3.3.2: The Greenhouse Effect.

3.3.3.2.1: The Release of Greenhouse gases by Forest Fires.

Forest fires release greenhouse gases which moderate global cooling. However, as global temperatures fall there are likely to be less fires, so the release of greenhouse gases declines and this reduces the moderation of global cooling.

3.3.3.3: The Albedo Effect.

As global temperatures fall there is an increase in the scale of the tropical rainforests. This increases their cloud cover which boosts the Earth’s albedo effect and thus cools the Earth.

3.3.3.4: The Heat Effect.

3.3.3.4.1: The Heat Effect of the Tropical Rainforests.

The colder that global temperatures become, the greater the scale of the Rainforests, the more heat which is absorbed and returned to the atmosphere, the warmer the Earth.

3.3.3.5: Conclusions about Forests’ Roles in Moderating Global Cooling.

Although Forests possess a number of features that moderate global cooling none of them are powerful enough to stop the decline in global average temperatures. When global temperatures are falling, the rate of Forests’ Photosynthesis declines and this moderates global cooling but the scale of Forests’ Photosynthesis boosts global cooling and thus contributes to the stabilization of the climate. The latter force is more powerful than the former. Neither Forests’ albedo effect nor heat effect play much of a role in moderating a fall in global temperatures.

3.4: Forests’ Geophysiological Roles in Exacerbating Climate Trends.

The previous sections explored the ways that Forests help to moderate both global warming and global cooling. This section explores the other two sides of Forest’s climatic capabilities, Forests’ contributions to exacerbating global warming and global cooling. It was emphasized that Forests’ contribution to the moderation of global warming helped to stabilize the climate whereas their contribution to the moderation of global cooling helped to destabilize the climate because it prevented the Earth from cooling down to counter the long term increase in solar radiation. Similarly, Forests’ exacerbation of global cooling would help to stabilize the climate, whilst their exacerbation of global warming would help to destabilize the climate - especially when oomans are dramatically boosting global warming. In the quartenary period, Forests’ role in exacerbating global cooling has been vital to the survival of many life forms on Earth.

3.4.1: Forests’ Roles in Exacerbating Global Warming.

Just as was the case with the previous sections, this section explores the way Forests contribute to exacerbating global burning by exploring the four main components of global warming.

3.4.1.1: The Photosynthetic Effect.

3.4.1.1.1: The Scale of Forests as Global Temperatures Rise above 10C Upwards.

The starting point, as in previous sections, is with rate and scale of Photosynthesis. As the Earth’s temperature rises above 10C, the ice sheets on the amero-euro-asian continents retreat causing a rise in ocean levels. Forests reappear in the regions of retreating ice sheets, whilst the Forests on continental shelves in the tropics are drowned under the rising oceans. The net result is a decline in the scale of the Earth’s Forest cover. This boosts global warming and contributes to the destabilization of the climate. Even worse, the higher that global average temperatures are above 10C, the greater the reduction in the scale of Forests and thus the greater the boost to global warming.

3.4.1.1.2: The Rate of Photosynthesis above 18C.

If the Earth’s temperature rises above 18C, there is likely to be a substantial decline in the rate of Photosynthesis which further boosts global burning and adds to the destabilization of the climate. It is predicted that above 18C both the rate, and the scale, of Photosynthesis will contribute to boosting global burning and, quite possibly, creating a runaway global burning disaster.

3.4.1.1.3: The Decline in the Absorption of Water Vapour by Photosynthesis.

When global average temperatures rise above 18C this decreases Forests’ Photosynthesis. Less water vapour is extracted from the atmosphere which bolsters global warming.

3.4.1.1.4: Photosynthesizers Conserve Water Vapour and Reduce Cloud Cover.

The alternative to the previous explanation is that as global temperatures rise, Plants conserve more and more water. Whilst this would reduce the greenhouse effect of water vapour thereby moderating global temperatures, it would also reduce the scale of clouds and thereby possibly boost global warming. It is not known which of these two effects of water conservation would have the biggest impact on the climate. Once again, it is not known whether, as global temperatures rise, Forests would conserve more water or lose it through respiration.

3.4.1.1.5: The Climatic Damage Inflicted on Photosynthesis.

As global temperatures rise, there may be increasing climatic damage to Forests which ends up by further boosting global warming. Lovelock warns that a spiralling global warming could generate climatic phenomena not seen before which could provoke increases in global warming, “What I hope will happen is that in between the more disastrous of the surprises soon to come, great storms and droughts and atmospheric phenomena never before seen, there will be time to think and the will to react.” [28]   The el nino phenomenon seems to fit this speculation very neatly.

3.4.1.1.5.1: The Damage to Photosynthesis caused by Storms.

Rising global temperatures are likely to increase the frequency and intensity of storms. Storms cause extensive devastation to Phytomass. This reduces the amount of Carbon extracted from the atmosphere and thus boosts global warming. Before 1987 there were no billion dollar climatic disasters. [29] Since then there have been 15. These storms have caused a considerable amount of damage to Forests. For example, in brutland the storm of october 1987 destroyed 15 million Trees whilst the two storms in early 1990 destroyed 4 million Trees.

3.4.1.1.5.2: The Damage to Photosynthesis caused by Flooding.

As temperatures rise there is an increase in flooding. Temporary flooding caused by storms inundates and damages Forests thereby further boosting global warming. However, flooding disburses huge amounts of sediment over the land increasing the soil’s fertility which, over the longer term, could boost Photosynthesis and thus counter global warming. However, in the developed world many floods absorb toxic poisons from waste dumps/manure dumps which prevent Trees from growing back.

3.4.1.1.5.3: The Damage to Photosynthesis caused by Heat Stress.

Rising temperatures cause Trees to suffer heat stress thereby boosting global warming. Forests might try to respond by migrating to survive. However, if global warming happens too quickly they might not be able to move quickly enough to do so, “The worst sufferers (from global warming) are likely to be Trees. Climatic limits are estimated to shift by 125-185 miles per degreeC of warming, or 60 miles per decade under the ipcc business as usual scenario. A Forest can shift at half a mile per year, 5 miles per decade, maximum .. Faster than that and it will die .. ” [30]

3.4.1.1.5.4: The Damage to Photosynthesis caused by Droughts.

The warmer the Earth becomes, the greater the likelihood of droughts, the greater the number of dying Trees, the greater the boost to global warming.

3.4.1.1.5.5: The Damage to Photosynthesis caused by Forest Fires.

Some of the climatic effects of Forest fires have been noted above. Forest fires destroy Forests and thus reduce the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity. This stimulates global warming.

3.4.1.2: The Greenhouse Effect.

This section examines Forests to determine what contribution they might make to exacerbating global warming through the release of carbon emissions i.e. the greenhouse effect.

3.4.1.2.1: Forest Fires.

The warmer the climate, the greater the number of Forest fires, the greater the release of greenhouse gases, the greater the boost to global warming - a positive feedback factor destabilizing the climate. Norman myers argues, "Siberia’s Forests are also being depleted by fires .. While most Forest fires are now caused by humans, they may well be overtaken by wildfires as global warming starts to bite - the Forests could gradually dry out and become vulnerable to fires. Much more drastic will be the full force of global warming. Climatologists estimate that a full 40% of boreal Forests, perhaps more, could disappear within the foreseeable future. This would release 1.5-3 billion tons of Carbon per year or as much as is being emitted from tropical deforestation today and 20-40% of all current emissions of CO₂.” [31]

3.4.1.2.2: The Release of Carbon by Respiration.

A rise in global temperatures causes Forests to suffer heat stress. This leads to an increase in respiration which boosts the greenhouse effect and destabilizes the climate. Even more worrying is that Forests could eventually end up releasing more Carbon through respiration than they absorb through Photosynthesis, “The probability is high that a warming will stimulate the respiration of terrestrial ecosystems, including the decay of organic matter in soils, sufficiently to exceed any net primary production.” [32] Woodwell calculates that respiration will exceed the fertilization effect, (i.e. the increase in Phytomass growth caused by the higher levels of atmospheric Carbon), “The increase in respiration from (global) warming will dominate all other biotic effects and accelerate rates of release of CO₂ and CH₄ from the respiration of Plants and the decay of organic matter in soils.” [33] The destabilization of the climate caused by respiration could be a powerful factor provoking a runaway greenhouse effect.

3.4.1.2.3: The Release of Water Vapour by Respiration.

As global temperatures rise, the increase in respiration releases more water vapour. This would boost the greenhouse effect.

There is some information which might help to evaluate the significance of this phenomenon. The scale of respiration even for Grasses, let alone Forests, is colossal, “Plants also affect the weather. They evaporate water from their leaves by opening or closing tiny sphincter-like pores called stomata. This loss of water is called transpiration and it keeps the plant cool and draws up liquids and salt through the plant. But the quantities of water are staggering. An acre of grass between may and july transpires over 500 tons of water.” [34]

3.4.1.2.4: Tree Decomposition.

The decomposition of Trees has two effects on the climate; the release of Carbon emissions and the return of nutrients to the soil. The first boosts the greenhouse effect destabilizing the climate. Thus the warmer the Earth, the greater the rate of decomposition, the greater the climate instability. The second moderates the greenhouse effect.

3.4.1.2.5: Forests Boost Tropospheric Ozone.

When global temperatures rise some Trees release terpenes which create tropospheric ozone, a greenhouse gas, “Terpenes react with other pollutants to produce ozone, a toxic form of oxygen which is also associated with traffic exhausts. As temperatures rise because of the greenhouse effect, pines can be expected to emit more and more terpenes.” [35] This is a positive feedback factor boosting the destabilization of the climate.

3.4.1.2.6: Soil Decomposition.

It is possible that the warmer the climate, the greater the soil decomposition, the greater the release of nutrients into the soil, the greater the boost to Tree growth, the greater the moderation of the greenhouse effect. However, if the rise in global temperatures leads to soils drying out then decomposition could lead to Carbon emissions which boost the greenhouse effect.

3.4.1.3: The Albedo Effect.

3.4.1.3.1: The Albedo Effect of the Taiga Forest.

A rise in global temperatures causes a decline in the scale of tropical Forests. This reduces cloud cover and boosts global warming.

3.4.1.3.2: The Albedo Effect of the Clouds Created by Forests.

An increase in global temperatures causes an increase in the scale of the taiga Forests. The dark green colouration of the taiga Forests increases the absorption of solar radiation and boosts global warming.

3.4.1.3.3: The Albedo Effect Spreads Deserts.

Rising global temperatures might result in damage to Forests or even deforestation and, eventually, desertification. This could trigger off further desertification and thus boost global warming, "The process of desertification is self perpetuating. Bright sand reflects sunlight, which produces high pressure regions that block out weather systems and contribute to lower levels of rainfall." [36]

3.4.1.4: The Heat Effect.

3.4.1.4.1: The Warming of the Taiga.

Rising global temperatures could increase the scale of the taiga Forests, increasing the absorption of solar radiation and, thereby, lead to an increase in the Forests’ heat effect, “The northern and southern temperate forests cover about 10% of the land area. Through their dark colour and capacity to shed snow, conifer forests may lessen the length of winter in near arctic regions." [37] ; “The snow-covered forests of the northern hemisphere can absorb more sunlight during the winter months than the adjacent treeless snowy areas and are therefore warmer. Not only do the exposed surfaces of the Trees absorb heat, but this heat also accelerates the melting of the snow that settles on them.” [38] The warmer the global temperatures, the greater the scale of the taiga Forests, the greater the absorption of solar energy, the greater the heat effect, the greater the destabilization of the climate.

It has been argued, however, that rising global temperatures damage the taiga Forest, “Boreal Forests are likely to have the hardest time in terms of climate change because they are in the regions where the temperature is expected to rise faster than anywhere else 4-5C above current temperatures.” [39] It is possible that as global temperatures rise the taiga will not change size at all, it will simply migrate northwards to remain in the temperature band where it is most comfortable.

3.4.1.5: Conclusions about Forests’ Roles in Exacerbating Global Warming..

An earlier section explored the way that Forests contribute to the moderation of global warming. However, as has just been outlined above, there are many factors which contribute to the exacerbation of global warming. There is no way of measuring whether the moderating factors are more powerful than the exacerbating factors. In circumstances of rising global temperatures, there seem to be far more factors boosting global warming than there are moderating global warming - but there is no way of proving this is the case.

3.4.2: Forests’ Roles in Exacerbating Global Cooling.

This section has no current relevance but it is important to understand the full nature of the relationship between Forests and the climate.

3.4.2.1: The Photosynthetic Effect.

3.4.2.1.1: The Scale of Photosynthesis.

As the Earth gets colder, ice sheets spread across the amero-euro-asian continents. This causes a drop in sea levels around the Earth and exposes more land along coastal areas in the tropics. Whilst ice sheets obliterate Forests across huge expanses of the northern hemisphere, large scale Reforestation takes place in the tropics. This produces a net increase in the scale of Forests around the Earth. This increase in Photosynthesis exacerbates global cooling. The colder the Earth, the greater the scale of Photosynthesis, the greater the exacerbation of global cooling, the more resilient the Earth becomes in combating the long term increase in solar radiation, the greater the stabilization of the climate. Changes in the scale of the Photosynthetic effect reinforce global cooling, and thus from the perspective of the current time, seem to be destabilizing the climate but, from the perspective of the long term trend of increasing solar radiation, this helps to stabilize the climate.

3.4.2.2: The Greenhouse Effect.

3.4.2.2.1: The Rate of Forest Respiration.

When global temperatures decline, there is a decrease in the rate of Forest respiration. This enhances global cooling and thus helps to stabilize the climate.

3.4.2.2.2: The Rate of Forest Decomposition.

A decline in the Earth’s temperature produces a decline in Carbon emissions from Tree decomposition. This decreases the greenhouse effect thus stabilizing the climate.

3.4.2.2.3: The Extraction of Water Vapour.

As global temperatures fall, there is an increase in the scale of Forest Photosynthesis which boosts the uptake of water vapour. This decreases the greenhouse effect thereby boosting global cooling and stabilizing the climate.

3.4.2.2.4: The Decline of Forest Fires.

When global temperatures are falling, there are fewer Forest fires. This leads to a decrease in Carbon emissions and a reduction in the greenhouse effect which helps to stabilize the climate.

3.4.2.3: The Albedo Effect.

3.4.2.3.1: The Albedo Effect of the Taiga Forest.

As global temperatures fall towards 10C, the taiga is covered by snow and ice. Snow has a much high albedo effect than Forests and this reinforces global cooling. This helps to stabilize the climate.

3.4.2.3.2: The Albedo Effect of the Clouds Created by Forests.

As global temperatures fall towards 10C, there is an increase in the scale of tropical Forests. This boosts the Earth’s cloud cover reflecting more sunlight back into space. This is another positive feedback factor boosting global cooling and thereby helping to stabilize the climate.

3.4.2.4: The Heat Effect.

3.4.2.4.1: The Heat Effect of the Taiga Forests.

The colder that global temperatures become, the smaller the scale of the taiga Forests, the smaller the heat absorbed, the greater the reduction in the Earth’s heat effect.

3.4.2.5: Conclusions about Forests’ Roles in Exacerbating Global Cooling.

When global temperatures are falling towards 10C there are many factors which contribute to exacerbating global cooling. The increase in the scale of Forest Photosynthesis; the decline in Carbon emissions from Forest respiration/decomposition; the massive increase in the albedo effect when the dark hues of the taiga are replaced by ice sheets across the northern continents; and the similarly massive increase in the albedo effect of the cloud cover over the tropical Forests, etc all contribute substantially to depressing global temperatures. From a short term perspective this seems to be destabilizing the climate but, from the perspective of the long term rise in solar radiation, it is helping to stabilize the climate.

3.4.3: Conclusions about Forests’ Stabilization of the Climate.

3.4.3.1: Forests Stabilizing the Earth’s Climate.

For the first few aeons of the Earth’s life, Photosynthesizers stabilized the Earth’s climate. By reducing the greenhouse effect, Photosynthesizers prevented the Earth from heating up as a result of the sun’s long term increase in luminosity. The main Photosynthesizers were micro-organisms. Since the emergence of Trees some 400 million years ago, Forests have played a critical role in stabilizing the climate. Micro-organisms may absorb more Carbon from the atmosphere and release more Carbon into the atmosphere than Forests but they do not contribute to the Earth’s albedo, and heat, effects like Forests.

3.4.3.2: Forests’ Primary Influence on the Climate.

Over the aeons, the primary way that Forests have countered the long term increase in solar luminosity is through Photosynthesis extracting Carbon from the atmosphere. Forests have prevented this Carbon from returning to the atmosphere by storing Carbon in the form of Trees, soils and Wildlife. Even more importantly, Forests have helped to dispose of this Carbon by pumping it into the soil and boosting rock weathering. It has also prevented Carbon from returning to the atmosphere by converting it into charcoal - even though this has been an expensive way of dealing with the issue considering that Forest fires release vast quantities of Carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Another important influence is the albedo effect of Forest-induced clouds which drive down the Earth’s temperatures.