1.4: The Destruction of Grasslands.

The previous section looked at the reduction in Photosynthesis brought about by the replacement of Forests by pastureland/crops/Tree plantations/lawns. The same substitution is also occurring to the Earth's natural Grasslands. This section explores the Photosynthetic replacement of Grasslands.

1.4.1: The Nature of Grasslands.

It has been pointed out that, “There is nothing more superficially ordinary than grass. It is a flowering plant, although its wind pollinated flowers are scarcely conspicuous .. However, grass is a special herb. The appearance of grasses in the tertiary was of crucial importance to the modern mammal fauna, for many of the animals that figure prominently in human history feed, predominantly, upon grass. Grasslands finally took over large tract of the world during the miocene .. the great grasslands, savannah, prairie and pampas, date back to this period.”[1] Grasslands have only a thin scattering of Trees and Shrubs.

Grasslands are known by many different names, “Different vernacular terms are used depending on the part of the world under consideration; thus grasslands (with fewer than 10-15 trees per hectare) may be called

steppes in Eurasia,

prairies in North America,

Ilanos/cerrados/pampas in South America,

savannas in Africa, and

rangelands in Australia.”[2] They are also called drylands.

Grasslands are found in many countries, “The driest rangelands include the semi-arid scrub of southern argentina, australia, the northern parts of the sahel and central asia. Tropical savanna grasslands are found in east africa, the southern sahel, india and brazil, while temperate grasslands form the euroasian steppes, the north american prairies (which include the great plains), the pampas of argentina and the south african veld.”[3]

1.4.2: The Scale of Global Grassland Cover after the End of the Last Ice Age.

“It has been estimated that grasslands covered approximately 40% of the Earth’s surface prior to the impact of man and his domesticated Animals.”[4]

1.4.3: The Current Scale of Grasslands.

1.4.3.1: By Continent.

The sahel is a wide belt of land that stretches from senegal in the west to sudan in the east, “The sahel was one of the world’s great natural pasturelands. Across its relatively flat surface and open horizons were seemingly endless expanses of low grasses dotted by single acacia, baobab and other deciduous trees, or by patches of scrubby thorns. In senegal, mauritania, mali, burkina faso, niger, nigeria, chadand the sudan, the vast grasslands of the sahel provided forage for a variety of herds and flocks - Camels, Cattle, Sheep and Goats. Usually the rains come in a short wet season between june and august ..”[5]

1.4.3.2: The Global Scale of Grasslands.

“The drylands, which cover 18% of the land area in developing countries (25% in Africa) are most in danger of becoming desert.”[6]; “Savannahs, broad grasslands scattered thinly with Trees and shrubs which span 20% of the Earth’s surface."[7]; .. "the world's 3.3 billion hectares of dry rangeland ..."[8]; .. "of the world's 4.5 billion ha of drylands .."[9]

1.4.4: The Destruction of Grasslands.

1.4.4.1: By Continent.

Africa.

“The African .. savannahs are going the way of the world's rainforests."[10]

1.4.4.2: By Country.

Brutland.

“In the UK, .. 80% of our chalk downlands have been destroyed as has 80% of limestone grasslands ...”[11]

1.4.4.3: The Global Destruction of Grasslands.

1.4.4.3.1: By Fires.

The burning of Grasslands around the world is common, “As much as 75% of african savanna areas may be burned each year ...”[12] The burning takes place at the end of the growing season and is intended to provide ash to boost the growth of Grasslands the following year and to prevent the growth of Trees. Overall, the burning of Grasslands causes a loss of nutrients and the longer this practice continues the more depleted the soil becomes.

1.4.4.3.2: By Overgrazing.

"Like fisheries, rangelands are being grazed at or beyond their sustainable yield almost everywhere. Where cattle and sheep numbers exceed carrying capacity, the rangeland is slowly being converted into wasteland. This is most evident in the pastoral economies of Africa and central Asia, where rangeland degradation is depriving herdsmen of their livelihood, forcing many of them into cities or food relief camps."[13]; "Not only is the biologically productive land area shrinking, but on part of it productivity is falling. While forest productivity is being diminished by chemical stress, that of grasslands is being reduced by the physical stress of over-grazing. Widespread grassland degradation can now be seen on every continent. Although the data for grassland degradation are even more sketchy than for forest clearing, the trends are no less real. This problem is highly visible throughout Africa, where livestock numbers have expanded nearly as fast as the human population. In 1950, 238 million Africans relied on 272 million livestock. By 1987, the human population had increased to 604 million and the livestock to 543 million."[14]

1.4.4.3.3: The Scale of the Destruction.

Grasslands are as much under threat as Forests, "Estimates by the UNEP indicate that 73% of the world's 3.3 billion hectares of dry rangeland is at least moderately desertified, having lost more than 25% of its carrying capacity."[15]; "There are 45 million square kilometres of drylands. Of these an area which is about as big as North and South America combined is already at risk of turning into desert."[16]; .. "Of the world's 4.5 billion ha of drylands, 3.3 billion are classified as biologically productive, and are used as pastures, rainfed cropland, and irrigated cropland. Almost half the world's cropland is in dryland areas, and about 80% of the world's pastures are found there. But 61% of this area is already desertified i.e. production of biomass and soil reproduction are at least 25% diminished."[17]

1.4.4.4: The Reduction in the Earth's Photosynthetic Capacity.

Grasslands are a part of the Earth's Photosynthetic capacity. They absorb huge quantities of CO₂. The united nations environment programme studied Grasslands on five continents and, “Its results show that tropical grassland turns far more CO₂ into carbohydrates than anyone suspected, equalling - or even exceeding - the productivity of tropical Forests.”[18] They also release huge amounts of Carbon into the atmosphere. It has been estimated that .. “burning the savannah contributes 3 times as much CO₂ to the atmosphere as burning the rainforests.”[19]; “The estimated total biomass consumed by the burning of savanna grasslands (3690 Tg dry material/yr) exceeds the other components of biomass burning - the burning of agricultural waste (2020), the burning of Forests (1540) and the burning of fuel wood (1430). On a global scale, the total biomass consumed by annual burning is about 8680.”[20]; “Much of the carbon that enters the savanna ecosystem becomes locked up in the soil, in roots and underground stems and also in dead plant matter. Although this receives little publicity, burning the savanna may contribute even more to the greenhouse effect than burning rainforests.”[21] It has to be suggested that Grasslands cannot pump as much Carbon into the soil as Trees and Forests and thus they cannot store Carbon to the same degree as Trees or Forests.

1.5: The Destruction of Heathland and Hedgerows.

1.5.1: The Nature of Heathland and Hedgerows.

Heathland .. “is characteristic of temperate oceanic conditions on acidic substrates. It is composed of ericoid (or heather like) low shrubs, which form a closed canopy at heights of less than 2 metres. Trees and small shrubs are either absent altogether or scattered. The area covered by heathland in western europe reached a peak around 1860. Since then there has been a very rapid decline.”[22]; “For Thomas Hardy it was `the blasted heath', scene of thwarted passion in The Return Of The Native. To many people, it is simply a place to get away from crowded south-coast resorts for a breath of fresh air. But for naturalists, Britain's lowland heath is one of our most valuable habitats. Lowland heath is confined to the maritime, temperate parts of north-western Europe, such as southern Britain, western France, northern Spain, the Low Countries and southern Scandinavia. Heathland is formed as a combination of three main factors: light, sandy, acidic soils; the historical influence of man as an agent for clearing trees; and, perhaps most importantly of all, climate. According to Nigel Webb, author of the definitive study Heathlands (Collins New Naturalist No 72), the extent of heath correlates with what is known as the marginal western temperate climate. This is characterised by mild winters, warm damp summers and a low incidence of frost. Characteristic heathland plants thrive in this environment, thanks to their ability to resist drought. Heathland has its characteristic birds, such as stonechat, tree pipit and Dartford warbler; and also scarce reptiles, including the sand lizard and smooth snake. But the habitat that supports this wildlife may now be under threat. As global warming increases the length of the growing season in north-west Europe, pine and birch scrub may begin to take over heathland. Only careful management will contain this advance, and prevent us from losing this unique habitat.”[23]

1.5.2: The Destruction of Heathland and Hedgerows.

1.5.2.1: By Country.

Brutland.

“In the UK, .. 80% of our chalk downlands have been destroyed as has 80% of limestone grasslands; nearly half of the tiny amount of remaining ancient woodlands has been cleared since the 1940s and over the same period, 109,000 miles of hedgerow. More damage has been done to the British countryside in the last 50 years than in the previous 500, most of it by farmers of meat and dairy products.”[24]; "Hedgerows are perhaps the most critically endangered species in the country. Between 1984 and 1990 27,000 miles of historic hedgerow were lost - mainly to agribusiness. Since the start of the decade another 5,000 miles have been grubbed up for road creation and greenfield development. Without hedges and headlands (the broad uncultivated strip originally left at the end of every furrow for the plough horses to turn on) birds are deprived of nesting sites, there are no flowers for bumblebees, moths and butterflies, and small mammals, deprived of their natural habitat die out. A hedgerow is really a long thin wood. In many cases it is all that is left of the great forests that covered the country."[25] “Hedgerows destroyed in Britain since 1945 would stretch six times round the globe.”[26]; “Hedgerows are linear forests that act as fences between farmers’ fields and serve to provide a habitat for birds and for numerous species of plants and insects. They are the refuge and reservoir of bygone ecosystems but since 1946 we have lost 150,000 miles of hedgerow, and i regret to say i played a small part in this act of national ecocide. I loved the english country scene passionately, yet i was as thoughtlessly responsible for its destruction as was a greedy shareholder of an agribusiness firm or a landowner out to maximize the return from his broad hectares. I am ashamed and now regard myself as part of the unconscious vandalism that has all but destroyed the beauty of my country.”[27]

1.5.2.2: By Region.

Northern Europe.

"Excess levels of nitrogen can reduce plant diversity by enhancing the growth of plants best able to utilize it at the expense of others. In large areas of northern Europe, for example, high levels of nitrogen deposition have resulted in the conversion of heathlands rich in biodiversity into grasslands containing relatively few species (Wedin and Tilman 1996).”[28]

1.6: Defoliation.

This section highlights another aspect of the destruction of Photosynthesis - the defoliation of Photosynthesizers such as Forests, Grasslands, or Heathlands. This damage is caused by a wide range of factors from pollution to heat stress. Defoliation reduces Photosynthesis but does not lead to either outright destruction nor desertification, the destruction of soils. For the destruction of soils see the section ‘Desertification’.

1.6.1: Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.

Cfcs and other chemicals dumped into the atmosphere by oomans, destroy stratospheric ozone. The depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer allows more ultra-violet radiation to reach the Earth’s surface and some commentators believe this damages Phytomass. Several studies have estimated the damage to crops, “A 25% depletion of ozone levels would produce a 20-25% drop in soya bean yields.”[29]: “Scientists have backed .. fears that food prices will rise because increasing ultraviolet radiation in the atmosphere is expected to cut by one-fifth yields of vegetable crops such as peas, barley and oil-seed rape. Some tree species will also be badly affected. Scientists studying climate change had said that some crops such as wheat and rice would have growth rates stimulated by increased CO₂ in the atmosphere but tests showed that increased UV-B destroyed that potential.”[30]

Lovelock is sceptical about such damage, “There is still a lack of knowledge about the relationships between natural ecosystems and the ultraviolet to which they are exposed. But we do know that ultraviolet radiation varies sevenfold in intensity between the Arctic and the tropics .. In spite of this large range of intensity, there is nowhere a region where the growth of vegetation is limited by ultraviolet. There are no ultraviolet deserts on Earth ...”[31]

1.6.2: Tropospheric Ozone Poisoning.

“Ground level ozone (from vehicle exhaust pollution) during the 1980s led to an estimated US crop loss of at least 5%, and possibly as much as 10%.”[32]; In the u.s., “At current levels ozone causes crop damage estimated at between $2 billion and $4.5 billion a year.”[33]; .. “tropospheric ozone may have doubled in the northern hemisphere since pre-industrial times, an increase of 25ppb. This increase has been particularly rapid during the past 30 years and represents a small but significant contribution to global warming, outweighing the reduced greenhouse effect due to the loss of ozone in the stratosphere.”[34]; “Nitrogen-based trace gases emitted during fossil fuel combustion (notably from automobiles) are major contributors to atmospheric pollution. Nitric oxide is an important precursor of ground-level ozone, the component of photochemical smog that is most dangerous to human health and crop productivity. It can also be transformed into nitric acid and, together with sulphuric acid resulting from sulphur emissions, washed out of the atmosphere as acid rain. Acidification of forests, soils and surface waters is increasingly the result of nitrogen emissions in industrialized countries, as sulphur emissions are brought under control.”[35]

1.6.3: Chemical Poisoning/Pesticides.

"Around the Severonikel combine (nickel mining complex in Russia) stand 3,700 hectares of dead forests. Another 13,000 hectares are visibly damaged and 130,000 hectares seriously affected."[36]

1.6.4: Acid Rain.

Damage Caused by Acid Rain.

Acid rain can cause severe damage to Vegetation and reduces the Planet’s capacity for Photosynthesis, “European wide surveys have estimated that 35% of Europe’s forests, or nearly 50 million hectares, are affected (by acid rain). In Norway, 35,000 km² of lakeland are affected.”[37]; “Acid rain will cost Europe 118 million cubic metres of wood every year for the next century.”[38]; “Acid rain has now affected over 7 million hectares of forest in over 20 countries. It has eliminated trout in rivers across 35,000 square kilometres of Norway, acidified 90,000 kilometres of brooks and 18,000 lakes in Sweden and severely affected over 50 lochs in Scotland, 700,000 lakes in Canada and many in the Adirondacks in the USA.”[39]; "A recent study estimated that acid rain pollution causes £200-600 billion worth of damage to Europe's crops, buildings, lakes, forests, and human health."[40]; “Across 15 European countries, 27,000 sq. miles are showing signs of 'forest death' syndrome. In southern Norway, all lakes in a 13,000 sq. kilometre area are devoid of fish, with 80% of lakes are either dead or on the critical list. In southern Sweden, 18,000 lakes now support no fish life.”[41]

The Release of Ammonia and the Creation of Acid Rain.

The intensive, factory pharm, livestock industry generates vast quantities of manure which is collected in lagoons. As the manure decomposes it releases pollutants which create acid rain, “A process takes place in these slurry lagoons .. The large amounts of ammonia in the slurry become a breeding ground for bacteria, which turns into acid. This then evaporates, combines with nitrous oxide from fertilizers and industrial pollution and forms acid rain. The contribution made by livestock slurry to this intractable destruction (of the environment) is central. In some countries, such as Belgium and Holland, it is the primary cause of acid rain.”[42]

1.6.5: Fires.

Reducing Photosynthesis.

Fires damage both Forests and Grasslands and contribute to global burning by releasing greenhouse gases and reducing Photosynthesis. However, Forest/Grassland fires, whether caused by oomans or by natural factors, do not cause permanent damage to Photosynthesis resulting in desertification. Fires release nutrients which stimulate the growth of Phytomass and, if the land is left long enough, Grasslands and then Forests eventually reappear. Some types of seeds need intense fires in order to germinate.

Some commentators suggest that fires are good for Grasslands/Forests. This enables them to support indigenous peoples using slash and burn farming methods. However, there is little doubt that many of the nutrients released by fires escape into the atmosphere rather than becoming ash to fertilize the soils. Fires inevitably produce a decrease in soil fertility. Whilst Grasslands can recover quickly from fires it may take decades for Forests to recover lost nutrients.

Forest Fires Creating Acid Rain.

“The nitrogen (stored in Trees) is returned to the atmosphere through the action of bacteria in the soil as dead trees and other plants decay .. But when the Trees are destroyed by fire, the return of the nitrogen is speeded up. Large amounts of nitrous oxide and nitric oxide are emitted. Nitrous oxide is a much more effective greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Nitric oxide is not a greenhouse gas but is .. active in forming nitric acid, one of the main components of acid rain.”[43]

1.6.6: The Forest Edge Effect.

Research has suggested there is a reduction in Photosynthesis at the edges of Forests after logging, “The effect on global warming of clearing rainforests may have been seriously underestimated. A team from brazil has found that carbon emissions from the felling of tropical forests are generally 7% higher than previously thought, and as much as 42% higher in some places. Recent estimates suggest that deforestation worldwide releases about 2 billion tonnes of Carbon into the atmosphere every year through burning and decomposition, a large proportion of which comes from the tropics. But according to william laurance .. the figures do not take into account the extra carbon dioxide produced by fragments of forests left after clearing. .. Laurance and his team found that the fringes of forests - within 100 metres of the edge - lose significantly more vegetation than the inner areas because they are exposed to higher winds and other extremes of climate. The resulting decomposition emits considerable quantities of carbon dioxide and methane, two major greenhouse gases. The loss of trees also means there is less biological matter capable of absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during growth.”[44]

Along similar lines, “Another large-scale example of trends reinforcing each other can be seen in the Amazon, where the forest is being weakened by logging and by clearing for agriculture. As the Amazonian forest dwindles, it dries out. As it becomes drier, it becomes more vulnerable to fire. The fire feedback loop is also affected by forces outside the region, such as higher temperatures. By burning large amounts of coal and oil, the United States, China, and other countries may, in effect, be burning the Amazon.”[45]

1.6.7: The Difficulties of Measuring Defoliation.

There are significant problems in measuring defoliation, “Every year, forestry authorities across europe evaluate trees for leaf loss. Doubts about using leaf loss to measure tree health were raised last year .. “An oak can lose most of its leaves one year in response to some stress, then grow them all back the next. In that case defoliation is a sign of a healthy tree.” says gunther keil. Indeed, the scientists recommend Forest assessment based on a variety of data, including the acidity and nutrient content of soil, the chemical composition of leaves, the growth rate of Trees and the state of other Forest species.”[46]

The problem is so significant there are even disputes concerning some of the most carefully studied Forests on Earth, “The Black Forest was considered all but dead by the german press and public a dozen years ago. Yet today it is clear .. Not only is the Black Forest marvelously verdant, but - like Forests across most of europe - it is growing faster than ever. Scientists disagree about the health of the german woods. The government’s 1995 report estimates that 22% of the trees show signs of damage, defined as suffering the loss of one-quarter of all needles or leaves. From 1984 to 1994, the federal and state government spent £250 million trying to stabilize the damaged areas. (Heinrich spiecker, director of the institute for Forest growth at the university of freiburg believes the climate may be a key factor). “Cool, wet weather - good conifer growing conditions - from 1950-1970 was followed by a warm, dry spell beginning in the mid-1970s. “The woods reacted badly.” he said, “shedding needles to minimize transpiration. Tree corpses, spindly trunks, and shorn needles littered the forest. But the anticipated calamity never happened. Whereas firs once dominated, spruce trees are now equally common. The recent growth spurt is mystifying. One apparent factor is the gradual end across europe in recent decades of “litter-raking” - farmers scraping up fallen needles, leaves and underbrush to fertilize fields.”[47] This example also shows how difficult it is determining the cause of the damage. There are a wide variety of plausible explanations as to the cause of defoliation.

1.7: Inundation: The Replacement of Terrestrial by Aquatic Photosynthesis.

The inundation of land is caused by a number of phenomenon; the construction of water supply reservoirs; the construction of reservoirs for hydro-electric power; and, flooding, whether temporary or permanent. The inundation of land damages terrestrial Photosynthesizers and leads to their replacement by aquatic Photosynthesizers. There has been wide-scale inundation of land around the Earth - caused both by accident and by ooman design. This is likely to result in a diminution of the Earth’s Photosynthetic capacity although this is not certain.

1.7.1: Hydro-electric and Water Supply Reservoirs.

1.7.1.1: Water Supply Reservoirs.

Huge areas of land have been inundated for the creation of water reservoirs. The number of reservoirs has been increasing to meet the needs of livestock populations (biped and quadraped) and industry. There is also a temptation to construct more water reservoirs to offset the droughts brought about by global burning.

There is often no need for the construction of water supply reservoirs. Water supply could often be maintained by plugging some of the numerous leaks in the water pipeline network. Repairing leaks might cause less ecological damage than building new reservoirs. Unfortunately, “Water companies curtsey to the idea of repairing their leaks but there is no real incentive for them to do so and its easier to build more reservoirs or sink more boreholes.”[48]

1.7.1.2: Hydro-electric Reservoirs.

Since the second world war, huge numbers of hydro-electric reservoirs have been built to provide electricity.

1.7.1.3: The Scale of Water Reservoirs.

This section highlights the scale of water reservoirs in each country. Whilst the construction of reservoirs for water supply does not necessarily entail the construction of dams, the construction of reservoirs for electricity supply does.

1.7.1.3.1: The Scale of Water Reservoirs Per Country.

Africa, Central.

The Maga Dam.

"It is the Maga Dam (which takes much of the flow of the river Logone, one of the two main sources of water feeding Lake Chad) that is drying out the once teeming Waza National park, destroying habitats for the numerous species of antelope, and undermining the chances of survival for the elephants sheltering in the park."[49]

Brazil.

Tucurui/Tocantins river projects - the Altamira Complex.

"The Tucurui dam covers 2200 square kilometres, formerly rainforest, and deforestation has occurred around the lake. Eventually, the Tocantins river project, of which the dam is part, will involve 8 large and 20 small dams forming a chain of lakes 1900 kilometers long."[50]; "The Tucurui dam on the river Tocantins .. flooded 2,400 square kilometres (of the Brazilian Amazon). The Tucurui is the Earth's largest hydroelectric station in the world. From Tucurui's turbines, power lines swing out across the rainforest .. to aluminium smelters at Vilo do Conde. The raw material for the smelters comes from the bauxite mines dug in the jungle floor of the Grand Carajas mining region to the southwest. The aluminium smelters .. are owned by Albras, a partly Japanese-owned company .. Albras has plans to triple its output and that means more dams. So once Tucurui is fully utilized, the government owned electricity utility for the Amazon will tackle .. the Xingu. The Brazilian government's planners have earmarked six dam sites on the Xingu .. which would flood an area of the valley the size of Wales. These projects, known together as the Altamira complex. When the Tucurui was completed, it sold electricity to Albras at roughly a third of the cost of its generation."[51]; “In Brazil, the tucurui dam flooded some 216,000 ha of primary rainforest.”[52]

Balbinas.

"The billion dollar Balbinas dam .. flooded an area the size of an english county. It generates on average only 110 megawatts (an area the size of two football pitches is needed to generate enough electricity for a one kilowatt fire)."[53]; “The Balbina dam near manaus .. will eventually flood 234,600 ha of rainforest.”[54]

Canada.

James Bay I.

"James Bay I tamed the Eastman and La Grande rivers. Its five reservoirs cover 11,000 square kilometres. By 1994 .. it will have a capacity of almost 15,000 megawatts."[55]; “Over 10,000 square kilometres of Forests and river courses have disappeared beneath the reservoirs.”[56]; "Canada has recently built a number of gigantic hydro-electric power schemes, especially in northern Quebec. Much forest (roughly 10,000 square kilometers) has been flooded. In most cases the trees were not cleared before flooding took place. This large store of carbon means that the area is probably, although there are no measurements, a large scale emitter of methane, and will be for many decades or centuries as the carbon in the flooded forest and peat is converted anaerobically to CH₄ in the shallow lakes. In consequence, although this is a renewable energy project, it is probably also a major greenhouse source."[57]

James Bay II.

James Bay II will tame five rivers and create 12,000 megawatts.

The James Bay Project.

"When completed sometime early next century, the entire James Bay project is intended to have a capacity of 27,000 megawatts. It will have cost an estimated $63 billion and will have drowned an area the size of Belgium."[58]

General.

"Canada has recently built a number of gigantic hydro-electric power schemes, especially in northern Quebec. Much forest (roughly 10,000 square kilometers) has been flooded. In most cases the trees were not cleared before flooding took place. This large store of carbon means that the area is probably, although there are no measurements, a large scale emitter of methane, and will be for many decades or centuries as the carbon in the flooded forest and peat is converted anaerobically to CH4 in the shallow lakes. In consequence, although this is a renewable energy project, it is probably also a major greenhouse source."[59]

Caspian Sea.

A disasterous miscalculation about the construction of a dam on an inlet to the Caspian sea has caused a colossal degree of ecological damage.[60]

Ghana.

"The Dam on the Volta in Ghana flooded over 8000 square kilomtres."[61]

Guyana.

“This autumn the French government begins construction of a giant dam in the rainforest of French Guiana that will provide hydroelectricity for the Europoean space agency's satellites. The dam will flood 310 square miles of dense, unbroken rainforest.”[62]

Malaysia.

The Bakun dam will be built on the Rejang river and will flood more than 700 square kilometres of Rainforest in malaysia, “The contract has been awarded to a company which has amongst the major shareholders two of the sons of the Chief Minister of sarawak. It will flood 75,000 hectares, all of which will be clearcut first.”[63]

Russia.

General.

"Soviet engineers .. worried nothing about drowning wide fertile river valleys with shallow reservoirs behind huge earth dams. In all, they flooded and area roughly the size of France."[64]

Kuibyshev Dam.

“The Kuibyshev dam on the Volga .. flooded almost half a football pitch to provide enough generating capacity to run one single-kilowatt electric fire."[65]

The Tsimlyansk dam.

“The tsimlyansk dam flooded 2,700 square kilometres of farmland, drowning more than 2 football pitches to run a one-kilowatt electric fire."[66]

Sahel.

"The conventional wisdom about the disappearance of trees from the Sahel is that peasants cut them down for firewood, while their animals eat the remainder. In fact, according to Peter Warshall, it is clear-cutting (of trees) for the large scale irrigation, dams and reservoirs that is one of the principal causes of large-scale deforestation."[67]

Suriname.

"Hydroelectric dams in rainforest areas cause other problems in addition to the direct effect of destroying forest. Decomposition of vegetation in the large lake created by the Brokopando dam in Suriname produced .. hydrogen sulphide. During the decomposition the water became acidic, causing corrosion of the turbines. Later, weeds grew in the reservoir and had to be controlled by herbicide spraying. Finally, and perhaps most devastatingly, the access and development created by the dam buildings projects opens up huge areas of rainforest to exploitation, including cutting, burning and conversion to cattle ranches."[68]; “4,067 square kilometres of tropical forest were flooded for Lake Brokopondo in Surinam, just north of Brazil."[69]

Zambia.

The Kariba dam.

"The Kariba dam flooded about 5100 sqr kilometres including some of the wildest and most 'natural' land on Earth, a precious fastness of rhino, elephant .."[70]

The Bakolori Dam.

(The reservoir (created by the Bakolori Dam on the Sokoto river) displaced 13,000 people and threatened to ruin the livelihood of 40,000 families living on the floodplain). "In 1979, there was a peasant uprising against the newly completed dam. The rebellion lasted seven months and ended in .. massive bloodshed at Birnin Tudu, the headquarters of the construction company. The ancient floodplain farming system was destroyed at great cost. The only winner in this farrago was the Italian company Fiat, which had built the dam and canals, and supplied most of the equipment from tractors and trucks to the advanced laser technology for leveling the fields (in the floodplain)."[71]

Zimbabwe.

"In Filabusi, Zimbabwe, a dam built three years ago by the government has never held a drop of water (because of the drought). The Garanyemba dam is now reduced to a couple of foul-smelling pools."[72]

1.7.1.3.2: The Global Number of Dams.

Fred pearce talks of .. "The world's 36,000 dams, each with a height greater than 15 metres .."[73]

1.7.1.3.3: The Global Scale of Water Reservoirs.

The scale of inundation caused by the construction of water reservoirs for hydro-electric power has been considerable, “Today, worldwide, there are more than a hundred 'superdams', with a height of more than 150 metres, subduing some of the world's greatest rivers. Three quarters of the world's superdams have been built in the last 35 years; around 50 of them were completed in the 1980s. Their reservoirs have a total capacity of 6,000 cubic kilometres and they cover almost 600,000 square kilometres. That makes them, in aggregate, roughly the size of the North Sea. Their capacity is equal to 15% of the annual run-off of the world's rivers. Already those dams are holding back so much water that they artificially lower by a few millimetres the tides on every beach in the world.”[74]; "The world's artificial reservoirs today hold as much water, and cover as much land, as the North Sea."[75]

The creation of dams has held back the rise in ocean levels, "In the past 40 years, the amount of water trapped behind large dams has increased 25 fold and now amounts to around 5000 cubic kilometres. This is a substantial interruption to the planet's hydrological cycle; artificial reservoirs now hold the equivalent of roughly 13% of the total run off of rivers to the oceans."[76]; "In the past 30 years, the reduction in river discharges world wide is equivalent to a drop in sea level of 0.7 metres a year."[77]; "By about the year 2,000 about 2/3rds of the world's total flow of water to the ocean margins will be controlled by dams. In the past 30 years, the reduction in river discharges worldwide is equivalent to a drop in sea level of 0.7metres a year." New Scientist 28.4.90) (i.e. 30 x 0.7 = 21 metres). (And yet sea levels have risen).

1.7.1.4: The Ecological Damage Caused by Reservoirs.

1.7.1.4.1: The Build up of Siltation Prevents Photosynthesis in Reservoirs.

The damming of rivers to create water reservoirs leads to siltation reducing aquatic Photosynthesis either by blotting out sunlight or by settling on aquatic Vegetation and suffocating it.

China.

The Sanmenxia dam: "The chinese finished building the sanmenxia dam on the yellow river in 1960. Four years later the reservoir behind it had almost filled with silt and was taken out of action.  ... They had forgotten about the yellow river's silt."[78]

Egypt.

“Their floods (the two niles of africa) irrigate, flush salts from soils, and lay down new layers of nutrient rich alluvium on an annual basis; or at least they did for millenia. Damming the nile at aswan .. has removed all of these functions.. The nile delta becomes progressively less fertile. Not only is the lake dammed at aswan filling with sediment once destined to replenish soils in the nile’s lower reaches, its huge mass of water triggers earthquakes ..”[79]

India.

"In india, more than a dozen major reservoirs are silting up three times faster than engineers expected.”[80]

Pakistan.

“In Pakistan, the mangla dam, completed in 1967, receives so much silt and debris from the jhelum river watershed that its operational life is being reduced from more than 100 years to less than 50 years; while another pakistan dam the tarbela on the upper reaches of the indus is losing its storage capacity of 12 billion cubic metres at a rate which will leave the dam useless within 40 years.”[81]

Globally.

“Worldwide, the replacement cost of reservoir capacity lost to siltation is estimated at $6 billion per year.”[82]

1.7.1.4.2: Reducing the Fertility of Floodplains.

Rivers carry huge quantities of silt which is often spread over the land by flooding. This increases the soil's fertility. Dams dramatically reduce the fertilization of floodplains, “In those river valleys where farmers rely on the annual flood to irrigate their crops and bring nutrient-rich silt to fertilize their land, dams can have disastrous consequences. Held back by the dam, neither the annual flood nor its precious silt reaches the floodplains downstream, jeopardizing the livelihoods of thousands of farmers.”[83]

1.7.1.4.3: The Creation of Development Refugees who Damage Phytomass.

The construction of hydro-electric, or water supply, reservoirs displaces people who live and work on the land to be inundated. These developmental refugees are forced to find new land on which to grow crops. They often end up trying to exploit marginal lands which they had not previously been interested in using. Or they may invade Forests and eke out a living as slash and burners. Uprooting people in this way leads to the destruction of Photosynthesis. Vast numbers of people have been forced off their land, "As a result of hydro-electric projects approved by the World Bank between 1979 and 1985, 450,000 people on four continents were involuntarily resettled."[84]

1.7.1.4.4: Development Refugees increase Siltation.

Forests often surround water reservoirs reducing soil erosion and the build up of silt behind dams. If development refugees deforest such areas they boost soil erosion and this increases the build up of siltation thereby reducing Photosynthetic growth both on the land and in the reservoirs, “Soil erosion increases dramatically when Forest cover is removed, particularly on steep slopes and in hill districts. Soil erosion has direct effects on hydrological cycles and watersheds, increasing the siltation of lakes and reservoirs and downstream flooding.”[85]

1.7.1.4.5: Dams change Algal Growth Downstream.

“Dammed rivers can have far reaching effects on ecosystems way out to sea, say researchers in germany and romania. In the past 25 years, a dam on the river danube has caused shifts in the type of algae that live in the black sea - favouring a species which form toxic blooms that can kill other marine life. Tiny particles of sand washed down from rivers are the chief source of dissolved silicates in seawater. Silicates are essential nutrients for diatoms - single celled algae that bloom in enormous numbers at the sea surface in spring, providing a source of food that fuels the marine ecosystem. Diatoms use silicates to make their glassy ‘tests’ or shells. .. the iron gates dam has cut the flow of silicates into the black sea by two-thirds. There is also evidence to suggest that missing silicates have caused the shift in algal populations predicted by ecologists. There are now blooms of species of algae that do not need silicates, which were completely unknown before 1972. At the same time, blooms of dinoflagellates, which can be toxic, have increased 50% more than those of diatoms.”[86] This may also have affected the rhine, mississippi, and the aswan dam.

1.7.1.4.6: Deterring Phytomass Growth in Reservoirs.

The large amounts of nutrients pouring into reservoirs sometimes causes a substantial increase in Phytomass growth. Where hydro-electric reservoirs are affected, drastic action has to be taken to reduce Phytomass to prevent it from clogging up the hydro-electric turbines. If the clearance of Vegetation cannot be achieved manually it has to be done with pesticides, herbicides etc. If there is excessive Phytomass growth in reservoirs providing drinking water, the Phytomass has to be cleared manually to prevent the water distribution system from becoming blocked.

1.7.2: Tidal Barrages: The Inundation of Mudflats/Tidal Flats.

In over-industrialized nations, as consumers become wealthier, they tend to buy second/third cars. The wealthiest might buy motorboats. Over the last few decades there has been a rapid growth in the number of marinas around the country accommodating the increasing numbers of boats. The creation of marinas requires the construction of barrages across river estuaries which results in the destruction of tidal mudflats. It's been noted above that the inundation of land often reduces Photosynthesis. The permanent inundation of tidal mudflats might also reduce Photosynthesis. There are also proposals to construct barrages to produce electricity and/or to protect against rises in sea levels caused by climate change. It is ironic that the construction of barrages to protect inland cities from flooding could contribute to global burning and hence boost sea levels.

1.7.2.1: The Destruction of Mudflats Per Country.

Brutland.

"Britain's 155 estuaries, the nation's most valuable wildlife habitats, are without proper legal protection and are being destroyed says a Nature Conservancy Council report, 'Nature Conservation and Estuaries in Great Britain.'"[87]

Japan.

"The japanese archipelago is an important migration route for birds. But in the economic boom since the second world war, nearly half of its tidal flats have been reclaimed (sic). Less than half of the coastline of the four main islands is natural; concrete walls and sea defences line the rest."[88]

1.7.2.2: The Scale of the Global Destruction of Mudflats.

There is no information about this.

1.7.3: Flooding.

This section covers both temporary and permanent flooding.

1.7.3.1: The Anthropogenic Causes of Flooding.

The main anthropogenic causes of flooding are deforestation and the creation of cropland. As regards the former, "When Forests are cut, particularly on sloping land, water runs off unimpeded, taking large quantities of soil and nutrients with it, thus depleting the agricultural potential of the deforested area and causing increased flooding and silt accumulation downstream."[89] The creation of cropland is also a major cause of flooding because rainfall often runs straight off the land, “Soil erosion increases dramatically when Forest cover is removed, particularly on steep slopes and in hill districts. Soil erosion has direct effects on hydrological cycles and watersheds, increasing the siltation of lakes and reservoirs and downstream flooding. About 60 million hectares of india are now vulnerable to flooding; this is more than twice as much as 30 years ago, as deforestation has intensified.”[90] See also the section 1.8.5.1: The Causes of Soil Erosion.

1.7.3.2: Flooding Per Country.

China.

“Floods have made more than 10 million people homeless in china this year.”[91]

Bangladesh.

Some commentators argue that flooding in bangladesh is due to deforestation in the himalayas, “In the Himalayas about 40% of the forests were destroyed in the thirty years after 1955 to provide fuel and increase the amount of agricultural land.”[92]; “The landslides that have killed up to 300 people in the northwest himalayas within the past week were due as much to uncontrolled deforestation in the foothills as to natural causes, indian scientists are claiming. Researchers .. say that the number of landslides in the area has increased markedly over the past decade. N.s. virdi claims that as more and more people have settled in the hills, trees have been cleared for agriculture and the building of roads and settlements.”[93] Others disagree .. “there is no scientific evidence for this statement, and some scientists doubt that it is true.”[94]

1.7.3.3: The Damage to Photosynthesis Caused by Flooding.

1.7.3.3.1: The Poisoning Caused by Flooding.

In the past flooding was often welcomed as a blessing because the deposition of silt increased the fertility of the soil. However, in the over-industrialized world, floods are a threat to both ooman health and Photosynthesizers because they pick up huge quantities of toxic materials from rubbish dumps, toxic waste dumps, manure storage ponds, etc.

1.7.3.3.2: Sedimentation in Rivers.

The greater the sedimentation carried by rivers the less chance there is for aquatic Photosynthesis. Sunlight cannot penetrate to the river bed to stimulate Phytomass.

1.7.3.3.3: Sedimentation in Estuaries.

The greater the sedimentation carried by rivers the less chance there is for Photosynthesis in estuaries.

1.7.3.4: The Ecological Damage Caused by Flood Prevention Schemes.

Flooding causes ecological damage but flood prevention schemes cause even more damage.

Africa.

Colossal water engineering projects proposed for Africa to prevent flooding.[95]

Bangladesh.

“The Bangladesh Flood Action Plan, drawn up 2 years ago by the Bangladeshi government and the World Bank, is likely to cost around $5 billion.”[96]

1.7.3.5: The Reduction in Photosynthesis caused by Flooding.