Observations, experiments and photography with respect to the bioluminescence and behavior of Collembola

The purpose of this page is to suggest challenges with respect to observations, photographs and controlled experiments which the amateur scientist may perform, specifically with Collembola to learn about their behavior. Anyone interested in the behavior of Collembola is encouraged to meet these challenges, try these experiments and report results. Originally these challenges and experiments were suggested for Graham East to try. Over a period of time email was exchanged suggesting experiments, given that it was not initially possible to obtain live specimens to be shipped from New Zealand to the United States. This page also presents photographs which themselves have presented a challenge or serve to reveal interesting, if not enlightening, aspects of the behavior of Collembola.

Figure EXP1 Supraphorura furcifera feeding on yeast grain. Photo (c) 2002 by Terry Lynch

Baker's yeast is apparently relished by many species of Collembola. Supraphorura furcifera is a very prolific species which dines upon yeast. Its mount parts could be seen working rapidly. When feeding antennae are held motionless, then when walking or encountering other Collembola, antennae will vibrate very rapidly, almost as if the antennae vibrations are used as a means of signaling to convey information. This form of vibration of antennae may have a species specific frequency and even be modulated or so structured as to indicate sex of an individual. Although Collembola may not copulate it is still possible males and females use their antennae in mating or enabling them to recognize members of their own species. Certainly antennae vibration in Collembola represents a challenge for observation and experiment. Antennae vibration may be a form of communication in Collembola, just as is wing vibration in flies. Antennae certainly enable Collembola to sense their environment, as to locate or identify food, so it is reasonable antennae may also play a role in identifying or expressing the species and sex of an individual, as in communicating this to other Collembola. Study of antennae vibration in Collembola and establishing whether or not this serves as a form of communication may represent a future challenge for entomologists.

Figure EXP2. Springtail eggs. Photo (c) 2002 by Terry Lynch

In order to determine the size of these Collembola eggs they were photographed at 50X using illumination from a AA MagLight flashlight, piping the light through a fiber optics cable. The eggs measure 0.13 mm to 0.16 mm and represent the size of Collembola eggs. As can be seen from this photograph the eggs are still clear inside and the young embryo have not yet started to take recognizable form. Also note the mycelium growing in the lower right corner. After hatching it was found these were eggs of Supraphorura furcifera.

Are Supraphorura furcifera able to detect eggs of their own species? This is certainly possible and is suggested by the fact this species lays eggs in clumps. Perhaps being able to recognize eggs of its own species Supraphorura furcifera is stimulated to deposit more eggs and thus the size of egg clumps or batches grows in number over time, with eggs being contributed by many females. These clumps of eggs can grow very large in vitro, consisting of hundreds, perhaps even thousands of eggs. Sensory organs associated with the antennae may aid in egg identification by a species. Do individuals eat egg yoke or debris around egg shells? Could this trigger more egg laying or egg laying in clumps? Studying the behavior associated with the deposit of eggs in clumps by Supraphorura furcifera may represent a future challenge for entomologists.

Figure EXP3. Sinella curviseta beside eggs and moulted skins. Photo (c) 2002 by Terry Lynch

Sinella curviseta appears to lay eggs at random over a surface, in this case moist peat moss. Here an immature Sinella curviseta is seen beside eggs and moulted skins at 13X.

Figure EXP4. Close up of Sinella curviseta egg and moulted skin. Photo (c) 2002 by Terry Lynch

It would be interesting to study egg laying in Sinella curviseta in contrast to egg laying in other species as Supraphorura furcifera which lays its eggs in clumps. Certainly there are factors at play with respect to different egg laying behavior from species to species. Laying eggs at random requires no detection of the presence of other eggs whereas for many females to lay eggs in clumps requires that the presence of other eggs be detected.

Future Study and Challenges

A future challenge is the collection and photographing of eggs of Anurida granaria and their early instars. There is a possibility that the eggs and early instars of Anurida granaria may exhibit bioluminescence. If so this certainly would be interesting to observe and a challenge to photograph. The challenge is presented primarily due to the low intensity of the anticipated bioluminescence, given this is the case with adults and certainly eggs or early instars are not likely to produce as bright a flash as their glowing parents. One of the first challenges here is to collect eggs of Anurida granaria and check them for bioluminescence in absolute darkness. Anurida granaria may glow inside their eggs, especially immediately before the early instar become fully active sometime after breaking out of their egg shells. But a negative determination of bioluminescence in pre active instars will not mean Anurida granaria do not glow inside their eggs until the identity of emerging young is established by rearing them to adults.

The following questions are presented for future study and investigation:

1. How widely distributed are Anurida granaria?
2. Do Anurida granaria occur inland at such locations as Oxford, New Zealand, along the river?
3. Do Anurida granaria occur at higher elevations on South Island? For example does this species occur at Lake Pukaki or near Mt. Cook (elevation 3784 ft.)?
4. Is Anurida granaria common in coastal areas throughout South Island?
5. Do Anurida granaria occur upon the North Island?
6. Anurida granaria is reported to be found in decaying vegetation. What is the diet of this species?
7. Anurida granaria is reported to occur in or around Christchurch on the South Island of New Zealand. Will this species survive in warmer climates? Given this species is reported to occur in soil at a temperature of 7° C (August) and may occur in greater abundance during the summer when the air temperature is warmer (8° C low to 21° C high) soil What is the preferred rearing temperature of this species?
8. Do Anurida granaria occur around lakes such as at Queenstown, Wanaka or Te Anau?
9. Is there more than one variety of Anurida granaria on South Island?
10. Do species related to Anurida granaria which may occur in other areas also exhibit bioluminescence?
11. Do Anurida granaria occur in bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent forms depending upon where they occur globally; i.e., are there varieties of Anurida granaria, some which are bioluminescent and other which are not bioluminescent?
12. What is the nature of the light producing cells and/or organs in Anurida granaria?
13. How does bioluminescence contribute to the survival of Anurida granaria?
14. Can any evolutionary relationship be found between Anurida granaria and other bioluminescent insects, as via genetic code analysis to establish similarity in genetic material from various species of bioluminescent insects; i.e., specifically firefies and gnats.
15. What is a good way to photograph and measure the bioluminescence of Anurida granaria? What is the intensity of their luminescence and the wavelength of the light they emit?
16. What are the best substrates and diets to rear various species of Collembola upon for maximum yields?
17. How is the GEO-structure folded and/or formed in embryonic Collembola?
18. What is the chemical and molecular nature of the various components GEO-structure and can a molecular model of the GEO-structure be produced?
19. How can these various components of the GEO-structure be produced synthetically as for applications in molecular robotics or other biotechnology applications, such as the creation of a synthetic cuticlar membrane for usage in filtering or as an artificial skin?
20. How is the GEO-structure genetically encoded and how does this coding relate to the various expressions of the GEO-structure in the many species of Collembola?
21. How is the GEO-structure varied through evolution of the species and what clues does the variation of the GEO-structure in related and descended species offer to understanding of evolution of the species?
22. What is the elasticity and strength of Collmembola's cuticle and how can this be properly modeled? Can the cuticle of Collembola be correctly modeled using basic laws of physics such as those pertaining to elasticity, strength of materials, wave mechanics and harmonics applied to a planar surface taken to the limit of a completed cylindrical or spherical arc of 360 degrees? Given the nature of the cuticle, the resemblance its hexagonal components to a matrix of polygons projected upon a curve to give, in fact, a geodesic, elastic structure, it is postulated that correct modeling of this elastic surface may be made by applying such basic laws of physics; i.e, not just to model the outter geometry but to model the entire cuticle and the forces as applied to that cuticle. The challenge here is to create a 3D model of the Collembola's cuticle, measuring the forces at play upon the cuticle as well as determining its nature with respect to how waves or stresses travel through that surface, that taking these factors of force into account, a proper model may be developed and used for applications based upon the material structure of the cuticle when it is so modeled.

More Experiments

Suggestions for the design and conduct of additional experiments will be posted in the future. If you are a student or naturalist and would like to conduct these experiments please report your results and send any photographs or documentation you may produce so it may be posted here. You will be given full credit and recognition for your efforts.

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