The Truman Doctrine was a foreign policy brainchild of President Harry Truman.  The main thrust behind the Truman Doctrine was to stop the spread of totalitarianism.  The policy was set before the nation in a presidential address to a joint session of Congress on March 12, 1947. 

In his speech before Congress and the nation Truman said, “I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”  The support Truman requested was to be primarily in the form of economic and financial aid.

The speech was issued in an effort to raise financial aid for both Greece and Turkey in the amount of $400,000,000.  But in a broader sense it was used to let the free nations of the world know that the United States would not back down on its newly established leadership role to protect the other nations of the world from communism and other forms of totalitarian government.

The speech was well accepted by the nation and by Congress.  In spite of this much debate was carried on in Congress before the relief package to Turkey and Greece and indirectly to what had become known as the Truman doctrine was signed into law nearly two months later.  The final vote in the Senate came on April 22, 1947 with the vote being 67 to 23.  On May 9th the House followed suite with nearly a three to one margin in favor of the aid package with the vote of 287 to 107.  Truman would sign the aid package into law in his mothers parlor in Missouri on May 22, 1947.

In the wake of World War II the economic situation in Europe was near collapse. The crops had failed to be planted or were destroyed throughout the battle torn countries. Europe was facing starvation and chaos. 

In April of 1947 Secretary of State General George C. Marshall , who had replaced James F. Byrnes as Secretary of State on January 21, 1947, returned to the United States from a conference in Moscow and confirmed that the situation in Europe was far worse than he had originally imagined. Without U.S. intervention the European situation seemed hopeless.

Secretary Marshall ordered the Policy Planning Staff to formulate a plan for European recovery.  The Marshall Plan was a group effort but it would be set in motion by General Marshall at a commencement address at Harvard in June of 1947. The plan was for a comprehensive recovery plan for all of Europe and no longer a piecemeal plan. The plan further called for a unified European economy crossing over nationalistic boundaries. A strong economy in Europe would in turn mean a stronger economy in the United States through fair trade agreements. 

The Marshall Plan was not limited in scope to Western Europe, but would also be extended to the Eastern Bloc countries.  It was strongly believed that the U.S.S.R. would not accept that aid promised in the Marshall Plan because in order to do so they would have to share certain resources with the rest of Europe and also make known their financial status.  If the Soviets joined in the plan they would more than likely be sucked into the Western capitalistic system and would ultimately lose there own system of government.  The Soviets rejected the Marshall Plan and also coerced the other Eastern Bloc countries to pull out of the plan. The administration was hopeful that the Soviets would reject the plan simply because it would be harder to sell the plan to Congress with the Soviets included. Shortly after rejecting the Marshall Plan the Soviets came up with there own plan of economic recovery and forced the Eastern satellite countries to join them, thus dividing Europe even more into East and West.  In the years between 1948 and 1951 the United States contributed over 13 billion dollars to the recovery of free Europe through economic, agricultural and technical assistance.

When the Marshall Plan was announced some members of the staff suggested that it should have Truman's name on it. Truman refused this wanting all the honor and praise to go to General Marshall, whom Truman regarded as the finest man in the administration. In recognition of his work General Marshall was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1953.

At the close of the war an agreement had been made among the Allies about the zone of occupation each one would maintain.  Part of that agreement was the division of Berlin itself.  The Russian zone surrounded the city, but a corridor had been left open for the other Allies to move supplies into the city by rail and road. 

On June 24, 1948 Joseph Stalin and the Soviets decided to make a power play by blockading the corridor to Berlin in an effort to force the other Allied nations from the German capital.  As a result two and a half million people would face starvation and severe cold as food supplies and coal stockpiles would quickly be consumed.  The only passage open for the Allies to supply Berlin was by air but it was unlikely that enough resources could be acquired to supply them by air.

Truman was forced with a difficult decision.  If he attacked the Soviet forces around Berlin the fighting could quickly escalate to World War III and for Truman that wasn’t an option.  Some of his advisors suggested the closing of the Panama Canal and many ports to Soviets in retaliation.  Truman opted to supply Berlin by air by bringing in as many transport planes as possible without strategically hurting our fighting forces around the world.  By Monday June 28th the full scale Berlin Airlift was under way.

It was estimated that to sustain the city of Berlin would require 2,000 tons of food a day, not to mention the 12,000 tons of fuel and supplies.  On July 15, 1948 the British and American planes provided 1,450 tons of material in one day, landing planes at peak times at an astounding rate of once every four minutes.  Each plane would average three flights a day at a distance of 275 miles per flight.  Even at this incredible rate it would still not be enough to sustain the city.  Truman requested that the people of Berlin build another air strip to allow for more planes to fly while at the same time he pulled in more American planes from Panama, Hawaii, and Alaska to further boost the supply. 

After a year and two months, the delivery of an amazing 2,325,809 tons of supplies, and 277,804 flights the Soviets backed down and the airlift was over.  It was one of those shining moments in Truman’s presidency.  The Soviets were forced to back down because the airlift had proven so successful.  It was one of the first times that the Soviets had backed down to anything since the end of the war and Truman had saved Berlin and quite possibly all of Europe from the strong-arm tactics of the Soviets.

 At the close of the war an agreement had been made among the Allies about the zone of occupation each one would maintain.  Part of that agreement was the division of Berlin itself.  The Russian zone surrounded the city, but a corridor had been left open for the other Allies to move supplies into the city by rail and road.  

On June 24, 1948 Joseph Stalin and the Soviets decided to make a power play by blockading the corridor to Berlin in an effort to force the other Allied nations from the German capital.  As a result two and a half million people would face starvation and severe cold as food supplies and coal stockpiles would quickly be consumed.  The only passage open for the Allies to supply Berlin was by air but it was unlikely that enough resources could be acquired to supply them by air.

Truman was forced with a difficult decision.  If he attacked the Soviet forces around Berlin the fighting could quickly escalate to World War III and for Truman that wasn’t an option.  Some of his advisors suggested the closing of the Panama Canal and many ports to Soviets in retaliation.  Truman opted to supply Berlin by air by bringing in as many transport planes as possible without strategically hurting our fighting forces around the world.  By Monday June 28th the full scale airlift was under way.

It was estimated that to sustain the city of Berlin would require 2,000 tons of food a day, not to mention the 12,000 tons of fuel and supplies.  On July 15, 1948 the British and American planes provided 1,450 tons of material in one day, landing planes at peak times at an astounding rate of once every four minutes.  Each plane would average three flights a day at a distance of 275 miles per flight.  Even at this incredible rate it would still not be enough to sustain the city.  Truman requested that the people of Berlin build another air strip to allow for more planes to fly while at the same time he pulled in more American planes from Panama, Hawaii, and Alaska to further boost the supply. 

After a year and two months, the delivery of an amazing 2,325,809 tons of supplies, and 277,804 flights the Soviets backed down and the airlift was over.  It was one of those shining moments in Truman’s presidency.  The Soviets were forced to back down because the airlift had proven so successful.  It was one of the first times that the Soviets had backed down to anything since the end of the war and Truman had saved Berlin and quite possibly all of Europe from the strong-arm tactics of the Soviets.

Pressure continued to build in the region until Truman got a call at his home in Independence that the North Koreans had attacked South Korea on June 24, 1950. To Truman and the world this was a wake up call from the Soviets. No one doubted that this war was being backed by the Soviets although no accusations were made through diplomatic channels.  Truman believed that if the Soviets were not stopped in Korea it would be only a short time until they flexed their strength in Europe. According to Truman the United States had invested to many men and too much money in the war to let the Soviets undo all that had been accomplished.  Truman had no choice but to send American forces to Korea.

The United Nations called for troops to be sent into South Korea and an American was to be appointed as the commander of the joint operation.  At the start of operations the South Korean forces supported by the Americans were no match for the superior number of North Koreans pouring across the 38th parallel.  By the first of August the Republic of Korea forces were pushed back to a front around the port of Pusan just trying to hold on until help could arrive.  The help would come in the form of a daring plan proposed by General Douglas MacArthur.  

Once again the Truman and the other United Nations were vastly concerned about sparking a war with the Chinese communists and with the Soviet Union.  They did not want this Korean situation to escalate into a World War.  The North Koreans were receiving support from the Communist Chinese who were themselves receiving support from the Soviets.  MacArthur’s plan called for an amphibious assault on Inchon which was thought highly risky by General Bradley and many others, including some on MacArthur’s staff.  American casualties were mounting around Pusan and by mid-September the number was approximately 12,000 men. Despite the risks of the Inchon invasion the plan was approved and was put into action on September 15, 1950.

The plan was a brilliant success with Inchon falling in less than a day and Seoul being taken back in less than 11 days.  The North Korean forces were folding quickly and a decision needed to be made as to whether U.N. forces should cross the 38th parallel in pursuit of the retreating North Koreans.  On September 27th the decision was made to allow MacArthur to cross into North Korea to defeat the North Korean armed forces provided he did not extend into China or Soviet territory and that there was no sign of major intervention by the Chinese communists or Soviets.

MacArthur, who had already made several statements counter to U.S. policy continued to let his mouth get in the way.  MacArthur insisted that even if the Chinese got involved in the war it would only bring about the slaughter of their forces.  The U.S. had no diplomatic relations with the Chinese communists but reports were pouring in that if the U.N. forces crossed the 38th parallel that the Chinese would enter the war on the side of the North Koreans.  

Truman flew to Wake Island to meet personally with MacArthur, whom he had never met, on Sunday, October 15.  While at Wake Island MacArthur again assured Truman that the Chinese were not a problem and that he would be winding up the war any day. The meeting only lasted a short time and the two men were back on their respective planes.

On November 1, however, it was confirmed that the North Koreans were being strongly reinforced by as many as twenty thousand Chinese, a number which would quickly escalate.  MacArthur began asking for permission to bomb the Chinese positions inside of China, something the U.N. allies were very much against.  From this point on MacArthurs constant speaking out against set American policy would put himself and the president in a difficult situation. 

Finally it became obvious to everyone in the administration that MacArthur would have to go.  Truman was forced with the publicly  unpopular decision to releave General MacArthur.  The Korean War would continue on throughout the close of the Truman administration.  Two weeks after the death of Joseph Stalin on March 5,1953, the new Russian leader Malenkov announced that there was no situation which could not be resolved in a peacful means with the U.S. By the end of July the armistice had been signed three years, one month and two days after it began.  U.S. casualties were estimated at 55,000 dead and 102,000 wouded. Many people believed that the Korean War was a waste but Truman had accomplised his goal of halting the Soviet tide.

Birdzell’s attention was on the commotion initiated by Torresloa when he heard the click of metal and turned to see Collazo ten feet away trying to fire his weapon.  Birdzell grabbed for his own weapon but was shot in the right leg before he could get off a shot. When hit Birdzell had the presence of mind to head for Pennsylvania Avenue to divert the gunfight away from the President inside the Blair House.  Before he reached Pennsylvania Avenue he was hit again knocking him to the street.  He then turned on one knee and began firing back at Collazo.  

At the sound of the first shot by Collazo, Torresloa shot at point blank range several shots into the chest of Coffelt mortally wounding him.  Joseph Downs also on duty at the basement door was the next casualty as Torresloa wheeled and fired at him hitting him three times.  Downs managed to crawl through the basement door and call for help. 

With shots flying Boring and Davidson opened fire on Collazo grazing his ear and then hit him in the chest, causing him to fall face down on the sidewalk.  Torresloa meanwhile turned and fired at Birdzell already hit twice in Pennsylvania Avenue and hit him in his other leg.  Birdzell fell forward to the pavement but laying on his stomach continued to fire.  Private Leslie Coffelt who was bleeding to death in the guard booth managed to raise his pistol and shoot Torresloa in the head, killing him instantly.  In less than two minutes and twenty seven rounds fired it was all over.

At one point during the gunfight, Truman who heard the commotion from the bedroom walked to the window to see what was going on.  The men shouted from outside for him to get back from the window for his own protection.  Had anyone managed to get into the Blair House Agent Stout on hearing the commotion was armed with a Thompson sub-machine gun inside the front door waiting for any intruder.

Fortunately for Truman the assignation attempt was not well thought out.  Truman would be speaking at Arlington at a well-publicized ceremony in only an hour or twos time.  Had the assassins only waited Truman would have been an easy mark. Birdzell and Downs would both recover from their injuries and return to service.  Collazo would recover and be sentenced to death in the electric chair.  As a gesture to the people of Puerto Rico, Truman commuted the sentence to life in prison.  After serving 29 years in Leavenworth Penitentiary President Jimmy Carter would pardon Collazo in 1979.