Supervision and Control of Teachers in Pre-Civil War America
1. Just as there were sharp differences among the early schooling structures (colonial school houses vs. Latin Grammar Schools vs. English Academies), so were there differences among teachers who taught in these schools.
Teachers in lower schools (elementary level) were often poorly educated
and had a very basic knowledge of reading, writing and math.
2. Teachers were required to live up to the expectations of those appointing
them. These expectations included upholding the religious, political and
moral standards of the community.
3. The three most common requirements of teachers:
· adhere strictly to the rules and regulations of the local church,
· be a loyal subject of the civil government (many teachers were
forced to sign loyalty oaths to the revolution after 1775),
· be morally acceptable.
4.Teacher certification and selection varied from colony to colony.
Options: school committee and local minister; head of local church (private
schools); wealthy families' OK (especially in the south).
Certification was based on religious background and abilities
in the basics.
5. Preparation of teachers was uncertain and, at best, uneven. For most of the colonial period the training of teachers was given little attention. It was not a profession to be trained for in the colleges, but one could apprentice for it.
6. Trend set in the colonial period as far as salaries and status was concerned. Highest pay went to college teachers, second highest to secondary school teachers, and lowest to elementary school teachers. Schools were definitely male-dominated
8. After the revolution, formal education played a more pivotal role
in helping to shape American society. Thus, more focus was given to teachers---
qualifications and training.
9. The tendency was to go to the other extreme in what was demanded of a
teacher as far as personal credentials--- " common sense, even-temper,
understand and discriminate others' characters, kindly nature, decisiveness,
sense of moral obligation, wide range of knowledge.
The curriculum requirements perceived as necessary included:
English
Writing and Drawing
Arithmetic and Bookkeeping
Geography and History
United States History
Geometry, Trigonometry, Surveying
Physics and Astronomy
Chemistry and Mineralogy
Moral and intellectual Philosophy
Law pertaining to school
Principles of Teaching
10. The qualifications could be summed up as awareness of the common branches of knowledge, the common elements of Christianity, and the common branches of republicanism.
11. How to achieve the knowledge or nurture the skills already in place???
a. Develop professional organizations to certify its own members according
to standards which teachers should have large say in establishing;
b. Establish special schools for training teachers.
Among he first to write on he topic of teacher-education was a minister,
Samuel Hall, who conducted a private academy for teachers (1830-1833).
Hall's writing and lecturing led to the "preparation in common"
movement the product of which became known as
"The Normal Schools." Also, European influences resulted in the
creation of private NORMAL schools (from the Latin meaning "model")
between 1823-1827 in New England. New features were teaching methods,
discipline and child management (behavior).
12. Three key names who led the Normal School movement after Hall: James Carter, Victor Cousin, and Horace Mann.
13. Carter created a four-fold recommendation for the establishment of
a Teacher -preparation school:
a. Board of commissioners representing the public interest;
b. A principal and staff dedicated solely to teacher preparation;
c. Establishing of a library devoted to teacher education
d. Establishment of a "demonstration school" for children of different
ages pursuing various studies.
14. It was not until 1839 that the first Normal schools were public. Why? Legislatures resented foreign influence; it was thought that the academies were doing the job (but no teacher training was going on there).
15. By 1851, Normal schools were established as the recognized transition between common school or academy education and actual teaching as a career. Most eastern states required normal school preparation for its prospective teachers.
16. The increasing use of women , especially after 1820, was due to
two factors.
a. Jacksonian democracy instilled in people the idea that being a citizen
qualified a person for the position he/she desired. Increasing numbers
of schools eventually meant more positions available--- even to women.
b. it was much cheaper to hire women than men.
Summary: Anyone could teach; cheaper the better for the sake of budgets.
17. Women fell into the money-related preconceptions that already plagued
teachers:
a. No need for money---women can live at home or off their husbands.
b. Boarding around--- teachers' private lives are not normal or significant.
c. Special rules: smoking, drinking, church attendance, dating.
18. Revisit salary-status connection.
1841-1861 Weekly Salaries
Men: $4.15-$6.30 (Rural) $11.93-$18.07 (Urban)
Women: $2.51-$4.05 (Rural) $4.44-$6.91 (Urban)
Summary: teachers were young and victims of high turnover--- so why pay more or treat with more dignity?
19. Early organizations were composed of people interested in education, but not teachers!
20.Two factors associated with raising the monetary and social status of teachers.
a. In a capitalist society, salary and status go hand in hand. That's
good news for teachers who were seeking better conditions since their status
was on the rise.
b. Bad news: no profession allows "outsiders" to dictate what
is appropriate or inappropriate for their profession. Yet the trend had
been to give non-teachers tremendous say in the way teachers conducted their
trade. The tax dollar was at the root of this dilemma. So being viewed
as a "profession" has been problematic.
21. State organizations of teachers were first formed in 1845 and culminated
with National Teachers Association in 1857. *** They organizations were
expected to NOT deal with controversial issues regarding their profession:
salaries, tenure, social conditions of children, etc…
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