WOMEN IN MUSLIM HISTORY

Concerning women in politics, we find a problem quite different from the one we had with women's contribution to science. For while there is no lack of names and facts, there is - like with politically significant men - the question of their moral integrity, not to mention the general questions concerning the legitimacy of the political system they are part of, especially in cases of monarchies and dictatorships. The most important standard for political behaviour that is relevant both for resistance fighters and rulers is the principle of "enjoining what is good and prohibiting what is evil", that is, the question of ethics and motivation. Closely linked with that, there is the principle of mutual consultation (Shûrâ) that is supposed to be the foundation of all political decisions in contrast to the "Pharaonic System" in which an autocrat, with his financial and ideological power apparatus, decides about the fate of his people at random, even instrumentalizing it for projects of personal prestige. In the Qur'an, women in two extreme political situations are pointed out to us.

1. Aziya, Pharao's wife. She saves the life of baby Moses and succeeds in persuading her tyrannical husband to let her bring him up. Doing this, she explicitely takes up a position by the side of the oppressed Children of Israel thereatened with genocide and their struggle for survival. Her suffering in her difficult situation while Moses, as a young man, kills an Egyptian, spends long years in exile, and finally returns as God's messenger in order to appeal to Pharao's conscience and to liberate the oppressed people, becomes obvoious from her prayer in Surah 66:12, "My Lord, build a hous for me in the Garden in Your presence, and liberate me from Pharao and his machinations, and liberate me from the unjust people."
2. Bilqîs, the Queen of Sheba. She is a wise ruler conscious of her responsibility. Her political behaviour is demonstrated, in the Qur'an, in the situation when she receives Solomon's letter. She does not make decisions at will but first consults her advisors who, however, do not recognize the significance of the matter but understand the letter as a challenge for a military encounter. Being intent in the welbeing of her people, Bilqîs tries to come to an understanding diplomatically until she has to realize that Solomon is not motivated by imperialist ambitions but by their joint responsibility before God for ethical values: in the end, she takes over the principle of unity and justice as a faoundation of her own government, for the greater benefit of her people whose trust she enjoys.

Already in an earlier part of this series of articles, examples were given for the contribution of women at the time of the Prophet (s) and in the following generations to the construction of society, its defense, and the realization of Islamic values both in the spheres of education and culture, in poliitical decision-making or even in the armed struggle. Early Islamic history was, at first, influenced by the conflict with the contemporary superpowers Byzantium and Persia who saw the message of Islam as a challenge to their hegemony, and later on by domestic conflicts, for the Umayyads, Abbassids and other ruling dynasties were far from always acting according to Qur'an and Sunna. Tribalism and pre-Islamic desires for prestige gradually surfaced again, and there were also some influences from outside. In the long run, especially women suffered from these changes. While it was quite possible for a woman, in the early days, to criticise the caliph 'Umar publicly in the mosque for a political decision, the view that women, especially those from influential classes in society, were supposed to keep out of public life increasingly gained the upper hand in the time of the dynasties (while, at the same time, the rulers themselves screened themselves against the public and its criticism). They continued to exercise power indirectly through their husbands, sons or brothers like the ladies at the court of the Abbassid caliphs or, later on, in the Ottoman empire, the Valide Sultan. Women like these initiated projects like the construction of mosques, colleges or hospitals as well as rest houses along the pilgrimage routes. It might be worth mentioning that the ladies at the royal courts often were former slave girls who had been given a good education before they were sold by the trader (not for humanitarian reasons but in order to increase the price to be demanded from the buyer) and who were later on set free after having given birth to sons, often to future heirs of the throne, like e.g. Khaizuran, the mother of Harun ar-Rashid. In other social classes, women more or less shared the possibilities and limitations of their menfolk - in families of farmers and craftsmen, this meant that the work was shared according to the local economic and political situation, especially in cases of spcial and political self-help.

Islamic values and ideals were kept alive by people like the imams from the family of the Prophet (s) and their family members, the children and grandchildren of his closest companions, or personalities like Abu Hanîfa, Mâlik, Ahmad bin Hanbal, ash-Shâfi'i, Sufyan ath-Thawri or Hasan Basri and their relatives and students, often in open conflict with the rulers or in passive resistance. We shoulc not remain satisfied with the superficial views of some historians who treat these representatives of Islamic ethics as insignificant because they had, allegedly, not enough political power. Even in those cases where a scholar lived his life withdrawn from society and "only" teaching his students, the influence of these educational activities on society and politics are not to be underestimated. The same is true for women who made their contributions by teaching and by giving an example, both in the first generations of Islam and among later scholars and mystics. It is no coincidence that even today these women are highly respected and their graves visited.

Muslim women's actual contributions in situations of defense and war are probably the most at variance to the stereotype of traditional woman, at least in the early days of Islam. Women certainly die have other priorities than the armed struggle. In times of war, they looked after the wellbeing of their children and after their absent husbands' business, or they accompanied the troops in order to encourage the men, to look after the camp, to treat the wounded and to take the responsibility for the supplies. However, this did not mean that they were unable to have a watchful and critical eye on the actual fighting or to interfere wherever this proved to be necessary. One of the first examples for this is the Prophet's aunt Safîya. During the battle of the trench, while she was in a fortress with the women and children of Medina, she noticed that a spy was trying to get access to it. With no other weapons around, she got hold of a tent pole and, without hesitation, killed the intruder, thus saving the fortress from an enemy attack.

During the battle of Maisan, the Muslims were confronting Persian troops while the women in the camp some distance away watched the development. Arda, the daughter of Hârith, suggested to interfere with the battle to assist the men. Having made flags out of clothes, the women marched towards the battle field. The Persians thought that a Muslim troops were reinforced and withdrew to safety.

>From the conflict with the Byzantine troops, we are fold of another example of women playing an decisive role, among others of Umm Aban who must have been an expert with bow and arrow and decided the battle of Damascus by shooting a golden cross, held by a priest as a symbol for the victory of the Byzantine empire, out of his hands.

Everywhere in world history, women rulers are an exception, and their stories are mixed with enough romanticism - both in the positve and in the negative sense - to make it difficult to clarify the details of the historical facts. On the other hand, theories according to which one of the two sexes, buy its natural character, is supposed to be better equipped for ruling, have proved untenable by historical experience.

Among the most well-known examples from Muslim history, there are two queens called Asma and Arwa. Asma was the wife of Ali as-Suhaili, the founder of a Fatimid dynasty in Yemen who was murdered in 1080 C.A. on his way to Mecca. After having spent two years as a prisoner, Asma became queen. She obviously succeeded to promote the economic and social wellbeing of her people, to construct roads and gardens, and to avoid military conflicts by skilful diplomacy. She was well-known for conscienteously keeping her contracts. After her death in 1137, her daughter-in-law Arwa suceeded her and continued her style of government, but she had to defend herself against all kinds of intrigues. Many young men and women were educated at her court. The Yemenite poet Najmuddin Umara al-Hâkimi describes in details different aspects of the live of the two queens, and they have become very famous among the peolple.

Another example is Radiya who succeeden her father Iltutmish to the throne in Delhi in 1236 C.A..She managed for some time to keep the ambitions of the noblemen under control limits and to promote social justice. However, a less able brother of hers plotted against her and took her place a few years later.

The world traveller Ibn Battuta tells us about a queen called Khadîja in the Maledive islands who employed him as a Qadi. As late as the 17th century, we hear about Muslim women rulers in the Malay archipelago. By the way, nobody ever minded that Muslim society in parts of Africa, South India and Indonesia were matriarchal societies; only the Europeans tried, in colonial age, to change their structures.

Stagnation in social development and moral degeneration were the characteristics of the age immediately preceding colonial age. There was a considerable gap between corrupt rulers who followed personal ambitions rather than ethical values and the masses that were exposed to the pressure of taxation and military service so that were was hardly any space left for values other than mere survival. Seen from that perspective, colonial age with its violent changes might even have been a wholesome shock. Social reality was too far away from the ideals of Qur'an and Sunnah. Women are hardly mentioned at all. Women from influential and educated families disappeared from public life into a doubtful priveat sphere while the women from poor families shared their brothers' fate of ignorance, cultural alienation and exploitation, and the more so since they did not only have to bear the burden of survilval but also the worries for the next generation. Whatever they learned in the way of "Islam" was no help to them since it was more of an official ideology that served the presvervation of the status quo, excluding any critical questioning that might come up. In face of this alienation from Islamic values, it is no surprise that, in the beginning of this century, Muslim women started to struggle for their rights, demanding equal chances in education, the abolishment of prostitution and protection against legal discrimination with the same voice as their European sisters and tragically enough without being conscious that, according to Qur'an and Sunnah, these are their legitimate rights anyway. What makes it worse is that so-called "scholars" try to deny them these rights in the name of a distorted Islam with irrational reasons. In educated families, women struggling for their rights are often supported by their families, but sometimes they also take great risks. Women like Halide Edib-Adivar and Sultan Jahan Begum did a lot of pioneer work in the field of girls' education. Women's organizations take care that the problems are made known to the general public and their demands are realized.

At the same time, there was the approach of remebering real Islamic values and Muslim experience in history. Various authors tried to give a critical account of traditional thought and practice and to overcome the religious alienation. Together with ideas of a society based on Islamic values, examples of women from the early days of Islam were rediscovered, sometimes with a lot of pathos and for apologetic aims. But there were also serious programmes for liberation from colonial influences and for a reconstruction of society based on Islamic ethics. Women made a significant contribution to this. Thus, for example, Fatima Jinnah, together with her brother Muhammad Ali Jinnah, worked for the establishment and development of Pakistan, initiated programmes for women's education and social projects and was a candidate for the presidential elections long after her brother's death. Women played a significant role in the liberation of Algeria, in the Palestinian resistance, in Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran as well as the Islamic movement all over the world, in all thosw fields in which women in the early years were active.