WOMEN IN MUSLIM HISTORY

Women's activities in natural sciences are even less known to us nowadays than in other branches of science and public life. One of the reasons might be that women, at first sight, seem to have been less active in this field. Natural sciences were often linked with military aims like the development of new weapons strategies, and women had admittedly less involve in that. On the other hand, a good deal of mathematics, physics and astronomy (in order to calculate the times of prayers, religious holidays, shares of inheritance, Zakat etc.) were too self-evidently a part of theological studies and general knowledge to be worth mentioning. It would be absurd to assume that women had been exempted. As we cen see from contemporary reports, in in families with a tradition of scholarship, daughters not only enjoyed the same careful education as the sons but also had possibilities to pass it on, e.g. as private teachers in similar families or in schools. Besides, we know that slave girls were sometimes trained not only in literature, music, recitation of the Qur'an, theology and philosophy but in mathematics and natural sciences, thus multiplying their market value. In general, the most significant motivating factor for Muslims to be interested in sciences was religion, both for the aforementioned practical reasons and because of the repeated qur'anic challenge to observe God's signs in the phenomena of nature and within ourselves and to learn from them. Without that, Muslim philosophy would be without a sound basis.

It will still take a lot of diligent work to find out what contribution men - except for famous names likeal-Biruni, al-Khwarizmi, Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen) and others - and women really made to the development of natural science.

Ijlîya, the daughter of al-Ijlî al-Asturlâbi the astrolab builder from Aleppo. An astrolab is an instrument to determine the exact local time as well as, like with a sextant, one's own geographical position, the position of heavenly bodies, the height of mountains and the depth of wells. It was used for various calculations in astronomy, and navigation was unthinkable without it. During the 10th century, the Europeans acqired the know-how nessessary to build these complicated devices from the Muslims, the astrolab becoming the most important instrument for navigation for the Christian navy until the 17th century. Ijlîya learned this trade from her father and continued it after his death. She was obviously successful, for she was then employed as an astrolab builder at the court of Saif ad-Dawla, who ruled Northern Syria from 944 to 967 C.A., safeguarding the borders of Syria with the Byzantine empire.

Women are never said to have tried to find the "Philosophers' Stone" to change metal into gold or the elixir that causes health and eternal life. The activities attributed to them in chemistry were more realistic and practical. Innumerable recipes for the preservation and sublimation of food by cooking, drying, pickling, candying, curing, fermentation etc. are silent witnesses. Many a raw material or product or method has been absorbed into European culture, sometimes even together with its Arabic name, and is now a self-evident part of everyday life while nobody even dreams of asking for the inventor.

Another field of women's activities has always been the production of cosmetics, not only for their own personal use but also to order and for the market. The wives of the Prophet (s) and their daughters and granddaughters were no exception. We are told that women were very successful with perfume compositions even though they rarely became famous by name because fashion and taste can change quickly. However, we do hear about Nur Jahan, the daughter of the Moghul emperor Jahangir, that she invented a valuable essence of rose. We also hear that women tried to produce imitations of very expensive perfumes. Centuries of experience in this field and numerous observations that combined into an independent tradition to produce the knowledge that is available to us today.

Another field that was a nearly self-evident part of women's general knowledge was the production of medicines. The boundaries between healthy food, cosmetics and medicines are flowing, and many a spice is not only useful for the pleasures of taste but good for the treatment of various diseases. Most of the things that we call "houshold medicines" and often neglect in favour of "modern" medicine have not been invented in scholars' studies or laboratories but through the practical experience and observation of many generations, mostly of women caring for their husbands' and children's health and exchanging experiences among themselves. There are still traditional lines of wise women in Muslim countries who, especially in rural areas, have a more significant role than "Western" medicine that is often only available in the cities and then only for those who are rich enough to afford it. Their recipes range from simple herbal infusions to sophisticated powders, ointments and pills that are not only very efficient but give evidence of a deep knowledge about the patients' body and soul. If this is now sometimes rejected as superstition, the reason is not only the aggressive propaganda of Western pharma companies but also in the fact that these traditions could not be passed on carefully enough so that part of the knowledge has been replaced by superficial education and magical thinking.

Again, it is from biographical and historical accounts that we learn about women who were experts in the production of medicines, like e.g. Ishi Nîli, a student of Abu Said the mystic from Nishapur (10th century C.A.) who made ointments for various diseases of the eyes. By the way, it was always considered important to compose medicines in a harmonious way, avoiding one-sided strong effects. In the Muslim world, intensive and careful research was done in pharmocology because the Prophet (s) used to say, "God has not created a disease without revealing a medicine for it, except for death."

However, women did not only make their contribution in the production of medicines but also in the treatment of sick or wounded patients. Already from the time of the Prophet (s), we learn that women used to accompany him on expeditions and campaigns in order to treat the sick and wounded, among others his daughter Fatima and the Mothers of the Faithful. According to Islamic thought, body and soul belong together, and so do the branches of knowledge in the religious sciences and medicine which both have been studied, practised and taught by women. When a person is wounded as it happened in battles, it is important to prevent infections and to treat them when they occur. Muslims were famous for this. They had developed the art of "clamping" large cuts by having big desert ants bite into both lips of the wound and killing them while they were still holding to them, the formic acid excreted by them working as an excellent disinfectant. Other disinfectants were aromatic oils and resins. It was only in the course of the crusades that Europeans got acquainted with the aseptic treatment of wounds and with the tretment of gangrenes.

After the ruling dynasties of caliphs established a regular army in the Muslim world, these services seem to have been taken over, eventually, by male physicians. By the way, scholars in later centuries explained, in their commentaries on relevant traditions from the time of the Prophet (s), that, while treating male patients, female doctors and nurses were of course permitted to see and touch the sick or wounded parts of the patient's body, even though physical touching between men and women outside the immediate family were otherwise considered out of question.

Since time immemorial, midwives were the specialists on female anatomy and physiology. These women were usually older and had given birth to several children, and besides, they had been trained by their teachers both in theory and practice. They were able not only to help even with complicated deliveries but were asked for advice in all cases of disorders like barrenness, problems in marriage or related to the menopause etc. Midwives were usually familar with the local family planning methods as well. Unfortunately, it did happen, however, that their knowledge and power was misused, and during the last centuries, they shared the fate of other women who practiced medicine, their knowledge getting lost and their chains of tradition being broken and superstition interfering with their work.

By the way, in Muslim legal history there were various regulations concerning testimonies and expert opinions where women sometimes seem to be at a disadvantage. However, testimonies and expert opinions concerning women's disorders, pregnancy, menstruation etc. have always been accepted from women only, for even if a man had theoretical knowledge, the corresponding practical experience that would qualify him as a witness or expert was missing. In most legal cases where women's physiology was involved, a midwife was asked for her expert opinion.

While most scholars did not object against female doctors treating male patiens or male doctors treating female patients, should the occasion arise, public opinion was often against women being exposed to male doctors for examination or treatment. When the idea of a strict segregation of the sexes spread, especially in the "upper" classes, sometimes even the doctor was denied access to the women's quarters. In this type of society, a remarkable cooperation between a male and a female doctor took place. A young man studying to be a doctor took care to get married with a young woman with a similar training or at least with some interest in the medical profession. This was reasonably easy for, under the given social circumstances, matches were found among one's relatives or at least in a family with a similar professional tradition, children often following their parents' profession. Then the male doctor treated the male patients and his wife the female ones, and the couple shared their experiences. When we find books on female disorders written by a male physician, we can often be sure that the greater part of the information given there goes back to his wife's practice. However, there have also been women authors of medical books like e.g. a certain Rusa from India whose works are still available.

Especially in the time of the Abbasid empire there were, in all important cities, hospitals with exemplary services open for everyone. The most famous ones were in Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and Cordoba. From contemporary accounts, we learn how their location was carefully chosen and they were generously equipped. Like the college studies, the treatment of patients was free of charge, the costs being covered by a grant based on agricultural land. In this context, we hear that the luxurious accomodation and food tempted many a patient to pretend to be weaker than he really was, especially when he came from the poorer classes - the doctors dealt with that with a good sense of humour. In a hospital, there was usually a men's and a women's department with each their male and female staff. There were male and female nurses and bath attendants. For male and female doctors, the work in the hospital was already part of their professional training, and they were given an opportunity to specialize. There were official examinations in order to prevent people without the necessary training from practicing as doctors and causing damage. Students were made familiar with hospital practice from the beginning. We learn from various accounts how specialists used to cooperate, e.g. in surgery. When he died in 925 C.A., the famous physician Razi left to his sister Khadîja a chest full of accounts and scientific treatises that she made available to the sultan's wesir who in turn combined into a work that has been important for the medical sciences even in modern times.

When the Muslim empires broke down, the financial support of these projects became impossible, the initiative in scientific and medical research being restritcted to individuals and finally degenerating. The holistic view in the sciences was eventually replaced by Western methods focussing on a mere analytical approach and technology. Only in recent years, in face of the increasing destruction of the environment, greater weight is placed on a wider view and inter-disciplinary cooperation again. It is absolutely necessary for us to restore our holistic approach in order to be able to fulfil our responsibility for creation. In this, both men and women will find their rightful place.