I. PHRASES AND CLAUSES: (An understanding of these basic units of the sentence

will help you to clear up many of your problems in sentence structure.)

PHRASES are groups of words that do not contain a subject and a predicate. They are

of four main types.

 1. Prepositional Phrases: these do the work of an adjective or adverb.

Example: In the wintertime, he likes to ski.

2. Participial Phrases: these do the work of an adjective. Example: Skiing down

the hill, he fell many times.

3. Gerund Phrases: these do the work of a noun, although they are similar in form to

participial phrases. Example: Skiing in the wintertime is very pleasant.

4. Infinitive Phrases: Like gerund phrases, these do the work of a noun. Example:

To ski in the wintertime is very pleasant.

CLAUSES are groups of words that contain a subject and a verb. There are four main types.

1. Main Clauses: groups of words that express a complete idea. Example: He likes to

ski.

2. Subordinate Adverb Clauses: these do the work of an adverb. Example: Because

he likes to ski, he looks forward to winter.

3. Subordinate Adjective Clauses: these do the work of an adjective. Example: He

is a boy who likes to ski.

4. Subordinate Noun Clauses: these do the work of a noun. Example: That he likes

to ski is obvious.

II. DIFFERENT SENTENCE TYPES. (If you learn to make use of the following

sentence patterns, you will help to give your writing variety.)

1. Simple Sentence: contains one main clause. Example: He owns many

books.

2. Complex Sentence: contains one main clause and at least one subordinate clause.

Example: In his library he keeps the many books which his father gave him.

3. Compound Sentence: contains two or more main clauses. Example: He owns many

books, and he keeps these in his large library.

4. Loose Sentence: a sentence in which the main idea is complete before the period has

been reached. Example: He reads books because he finds this an enjoyable way to spend

time.

5. Periodic Sentence: The thought in the sentence is not complete until the period has been

reached. Example: If you enjoy the pleasure that comes from mental exercise,

you should read serious books.

6. Balanced Sentence: has two or more parts which match one another in length and

pattern. Example: If you enjoy novels, read Dickens; if you enjoy plays,

read Shakespeare.

7. Climactic Sentence: contains three or more parallel elements that are placed in order of

climax. Example: Reading is a good activity because it will give you

pleasure, supply you with facts, and teach you to think.

III. COMMON SENTENCE ERRORS: (If you learn to avoid the following mistakes, you

will write with greater clarity.)

1. Incomplete Sentence: failure to have a main clause in the sentence.

Example: My mother, who is a very god cook and especially likes baking

strawberry shortcake..

2. Run-on Sentence: failure to join two main clauses with stronger punctuation than a

comma. Example: She prides herself on being a very good cook, at least she

thinks she is.

3. Misplaced Modifier: failure to place the modifier close to what it modifies. Example:

She phoned and asked me to go to the movies while eating dinner.

4. Dangling Participle: failure to see that the participial phrase is followed by what it

modifies. Example: Having come home late, my supper was cold. (The

supper didn't come home late.)

5. Faulty Pronoun Reference: failure to make sure that the pronoun has a clear antecedent.

Example: After removing the turkey from the oven, scrub it with steel wool.

(The turkey or the oven?)

6. Faulty Parallelism: failure to see that the grammatical units joined by a co-ordinating

word are of the same kind. Example: Having taken a few more lessons,

and when you have had more practice, you will be a good cook. (Here a

participial phrase is incorrectly made parallel to an adverb clause.)

7. Loose Subordination: failure to join the subordinate clause to the main clause in an exact

way. Example: There are many rich foods which often give people

indigestion. (The "which" is loose. In this sentence it should be replaced by

"and these".)

IV BASIC SENTENCE PUNCTUATION. (If you learn to apply the following basic

principles of punctuation, your writing will be easier to follow.)

1. Use a comma after a long introductory phrase. Example: For a brief period

some years ago, New Westminster was the capital of British Columbia.

2. Use a Comma to prevent the misreading of a sentence. Example: They left at five

o'clock, for Calgary was still a long way off. (Without the comma, the

sentence would seem to read "They left at five o'clock for Calgary". But this is

not what is meant.)

3. Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase. Example: Flying to Prince

Rupert, the pilot got lost in the fog. (Note that a comma is not necessary

after a gerund phrase: "Flying to Prince Rupert is the fastest way to get

there.")

4. Use commas to mark off short interrupting phrases. Example: He was, in fact, born in

Trail. (Note that when the interrupting phrase or clause is longer, either dashes

or parentheses are used. Example: His hometown (his father and mother

were also born there) is Trail.

5. Use a comma between long CO-ordinate clauses, especially when they are joined by "but".

Example: He thought she lived in Edmonton, but actually it was Red Deer.

6. Use a semi-colon to join the two parts of a balanced sentence. Example: Mining is the

chief industry in the Kootneays; lumbering the chief industry in the Caribou.

7. Use a semi-colon before a joining word such as "however" when it is used to connect two

main clauses. Example: I have never been to the Peace River country;

however, I hope to go there next summer.

SECTION B: USING WORDS

I. COMMON DICTION ERRORS.

1. Avoid Incorrect Usage: most words have several meanings, but you should

employ them only in contexts where their use is well-established. Example:

This morning the snow had a very conspicuous glisten. (Snow can "glisten",

but it cannot have "a conspicuous glisten".)

2. Avoid Incorrect Idiom: although words can be combined in many ways, some

combinations are not accepted in standard usage. Example: Education is one

of the most valuable achievements we can receive. (This is not idiomatic

since "achievements" are not things that we can "receive".)

3. Avoid Trite Expressions: certain combinations of words that have been overworked by

earlier writers should be avoided. Example: Life's trials and tribulations

may not seem so bad if they are examined in the cold light of day. ("Trials

and tribulations" and "the cold light of day" are both trite.)

4. Avoid the Wrong Level of Diction: Words that are too formal or to informal should be

avoided. Example: (Too Formal) He spent the evening perusing his texts.

(Too Informal) He spent the evening giving his books the once over. (The

standard way of expressing this idea would be something like "He spent the

evening glancing over his homework".)

5. Avoid Needless Repetition: it is bad writing style to repeat unimportant words.

Example Of the many sounds that annoy me, the sound of someone

needlessly sounding his horn annoys me most. (Could you rewrite this

sentence using the word "sound" only once?)

6. Avoid Out-Of-Date Words: language continually changes, and some words are gradually

passing out of standard usage. Example: Whilst we were away, someone

broke into our house. ("While" is the current form of this word, and nothing is

gained from using "whilst".)

7. Avoid Accidental Puns be careful that you do not use a word in a context where it takes

on a meaning you did not intend it to have. Example: Mr. Jones, who weighs

about 250 pounds, is a stout believer in eating well. (Using "stout" in referring

to a 250 pound man can't help but make the statement seem absurd.)

II SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN THE FORM OF WORDS

(The notes that follow are "suggestions" rather than "rules". They are concerned with

describing the form that is most appropriate in standard prose.)

1. Writing Numbers: as a general rule, spell out the numbers from one to ten,

and use figures for all others. Example: He scored eight points in yesterday's

game. This gives him a total of 37 for the season.

2. Writing Large Numbers: it is usual to spell out large round numbers, but to use figures

for large exact numbers. Example: Canada has nearly 20 million people.

Example: The city's population in the last census was 123,456.

3. Writing Sums of Money: for sums over one dollar, use the dollar sign and figures. For

sums less than one dollar, use figures and the word "cents" Example: This

coat cost $16.95, but the gloves cost only 99 cents.

4. Writing Percent: do not us the percent sign (%) in standard prose. Instead, write out the

word "percent". Example He spends 50 percent of his income on his car.

5. Writing Fractions: spell out simple fractions, but use figures for complex fractions.

Example: He has scored one third of the team's goals. Example: "He was

looking for an 11/16ths drill.

6. Writing Dates: in standard prose it is customary to spell out the names of centuries.

Example: the twentieth century. (Not the 20th century.) It is also

customary now to write specific dates in as concise a form as possible.

Example: She was born on May 7, 1955. (Not May 7th, 1955).

7. Writing Time: there are two acceptable forms for writing specific times of the day.

Example: They said they would arrive at eight o'clock. Example: He told

me that his train left at 8:37 p.m. (It is not generally acceptable to write the

following: eight p.m. or 8:37 o'clock.)

8. Showing Titles: in hand-written prose, the usual way of indicating a title of a book is to

enclose it in quotation marks, or to underline it. Note, too, that all words in the

title are usually capitalized. Example He said he had been reading

Shakespeare's "Much Ado About Nothing".

9. Writing Abbreviations: the names of things that are very well known can be abbreviated

in prose, although it is customary to write the name in its full form the first time

it is used. Example: He hopes to attend The University of British

Columbia and play for the UBC Thunderbirds. (Note that in standard prose,

abbreviations such as "govt" and "dept" are generally avoided.)

III SOME WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED

1. Affect and Effect: The first means "to influence"; the second means "to bring

about". Examples: He was affected by the music. And: The doctor

Effected a cure. Note also that "effect" is the noun form. Example: the

effect of his hard work was that he became president.

2. Already and All Ready: The first is an adverb that means "previously"; the second an

adjective phrase that means "prepared". Example He has already had his

supper; his mother had it all ready for him when he got home.

3. Alright and All Right: The first is the conversational form of the second. "Alright" has

not yet established itself in standard written English as the equivalent of "All

right". Example: It will be all right (not "alright) with me if you leave.

4. Amount and Number: The first refers to things which are counted in bulk; the second to

things which are counted individually. Example: He has a large amount of

money, but a small number of friends.

5. Between and Among: The first is used only with two; the second with more than two.

Examples: He divided his books between Tom and Bob and distributed his

records among his many friends.

6. Continual and Continuous: The first means "frequently" or "closely repeated"; the

second means "without interruption". Examples: There was a continual flow

of traffic over the bridge, and a continuous flow of water under it.

7. Fewer and Less: The first is used with things that are counted in numbers; the second

with things that are counted in bulk. Examples: He has fewer problems to do,

but he has less time to do them in than we have.

8. Infer and Imply: The first means "to draw a conclusion"; the second "to suggest

indirectly". Examples: I was able to infer from what he said that he hadn't

had his lunch: by stating that he was continually hungry, he implied that he

had little for food.

9. Inflammable, Flammable and Nonflammable: The first two both mean "capable of

being set on fire easily"; the third means the opposite, that is, non-combustible.

Examples: Gasoline is an inflammable (or flammable) substance; water is a

nonflammable liquid.

10. It's and Its: The first is a contraction of "It is"; the second the possessive form of the

pronoun "it". Examples: It's true that his car is newer than mine, but its

condition is no better.

11. Liable and Likely: The first means "possible"; the second means "probable".

Examples: If you play with fire you are liable to get burned; if you play with

fire carelessly you are likely to get burned.

12. Principle and Principal: The first refers to a truth or a theory; the second to

something that is "main" or "first". Examples: the principal reason we have

for accepting this basic principle is that no one has been able to disprove it.

I. THE FIVE MAIN LITERARY FORMS

1. The Poem: a rhythmical expression of strong feeling. (Special Types: lyric,

epic, narrative, ode, elegy, ballad.)

2. The Essay: a prose composition that presents ideas, facts, or opinions. (Special

Types: formal essay, personal essay, comic essay.)

3. The Play: a work in either prose or verse that tells a story through dialogue. The

story is usually rich in conflict. (Special Types: comedy, tragedy, history.)

4. The Short Story: a narrative that focuses on one important event in the life of its

central character.

5. The Novel: a longer narrative that presents several related episodes in the life of its

central character or characters.

LITERARY DEVICES

Writers make use of the following devices to help them express their ideas effectively.

1. Alliteration: the repetition of initial consonant sounds in adjacent words.

Example: The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,

The furrow followed free. (Coleridge).

2. Assonance: the repetition of internal vowel sounds in adjacent words. Example:

The long day wanes; the slow moon climbs;

The deep moans round with many voices. (Tennyson).

3. Imitative Harmony: (also called Onomatopoeia) the sound of what is being described.

Example:

The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves. (Keats)

4. Metaphor: in this, the most important of figurative devices, one thing is said to be

another thing. Example:

Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player

That struts and frets his hour upon the stage

And then is heard no more. (Shakespeare).

5. Simile: a comparison in which one thing is said to be like another thing. Example:

The As Syrian came down like the wolf on the fold. (Byron)

6. Personification: A special kind of metaphor in which things that are not living are

said to have human attributes: Example:

The Downs awoke to find their faces slashed. (Pratt)

7. Repetition: this involves using a word or phrase more than once in order to emphasize

it. Example:

Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs

Upon the slimy sea. (Coleridge).

A FEW OTHER LITERARY TERMS

1. Allusion: a reference to some book or past event. The Bible and Shakespeare's play's

are rich sources of allusion.

2. Climax: the point in a play, novel, or short story when the conflict between the

opposing forces is decided.

3. Dramatic Irony: a statement in a play that has one meaning for the character who

speaks it, and another meaning for those who hear it.

4. Flashback: a technique used in plays, novels, and short stories to move the action

back to an earlier time.

5. Foreshadowing: a comment or an event in a play, novel or short story that hints at

how the conflict is going to be resolved.

6. Narrative Techniques: (a) First Person Narration: the story is told by the "I" to

whom the events are happening; (b) All Knowing Author: the story is told by an

author who can see everywhere at once, and can also see into the minds of his

characters; (c) Stream of Consciousness: the story is told from inside the

free-flowing mind of one or more of the characters.

7. Symbol: an object or event that is meant to stand for something other than itself.

8. Theme: the idea about human life that the literary work sets out to express.