This is an attempt to provide some background to the terminology of university degrees that are now so widespread.

Even the newest universities use terminology which has its origins in the mediaeval world. But what do the terms really mean?

Oxford University, England

Universities started to be set up in Europe in the 12th and 13th century or so. Teaching in universities was only carried out by people who were properly qualified, as with other professions - or guilds: faculties in universities were organised as guilds. In the same way that a carpenter would attain the guild status of a "master carpenter" when fully qualified, a teacher would become a "master" when he had been licensed by his profession - the teaching guild.

Today the terms master, doctor and professor signify different levels of academic achievement, but initially were equivalent terms. The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to award the degree of doctor in civil law in the late 12th century, and awarded similar degrees in other subjects including medicine. (It is interesting to note that it is only in medicine that the term "doctor" is still used by students who have obtained their first academic qualification - a throwback to these times.)

Other universities went down a different line. The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates, and the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge adopted the Parisian system. (Cambridge University has a very detailed and interesting account of the early days of the university.)

The practice developed along these lines, and became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as masters, but those in philosophy, medicine and law were known as doctor. As study in the arts or in grammar was a neccessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as philosophy, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. The hierarchy that we know today - the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree being more advanced than the Master of Arts (M.A.) degree - was being developed. The German universities developed the practice of using the term "doctor" for all advanced degrees, and this usage spread across the academic world.

The French system and terminology shows very strong links with the past and the original meaning of the academic terms. The baccalauréat ( cf. "bachelor" ) is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed secondary studies and admits the student to the university. When students qualify from university, they are awarded licence, - very much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and the students are qualified to teach in secondary schools or to go on to higher-level studies.

In Germany, the doctorate is still the only degree granted, but with additions to specify the area of study - such as Dr.rer.nat. (Doktor rerum naturalium) in natural sciences and Dr.Ing. (Doktor-Ingenieur) in engineering.

All of these links, and some others, can be found at the Burgon Society web site, a society
"founded in 2000 in response to a growing interest in the subject of academical dress. It is named after Dean Burgon, the only person to have a shape of academical hood named after him."

Last updated on 03 October 2004