CAMPING TIPS AND KNOW HOW IN SURVIVAL
            UNDER ALL CLIMATES AND CONDITIONS

SPECIAL NOTE FROM THE CO-AUTHOR, THE FOLLOWING ARE NOTES ON HOW
TO BEST MAKE CAMP, THIS WORK IS NOT FINISHED SO BARE WITH ME.
Plenty more informations coming up as soon as I can do it.

I WILL UPLOAD THE FINAL RESULT AS SOON AS I CAN MEANWHILE THERE
ARE PLENTY OF GOOD TIPS WHICH YOU STILL CAN USE. THANKS!

P/S IF YOU HAVE ANY GOOD TIPS SEND THEM ALONG TO MY E-MAIL!
			richard@io.org




"A human being should be able to change a diaper, plan an
invasion, butcher a hog, conn a ship, design a building, write a
sonnet, balance Accounts, build a wall, set a bone, comfort the
dying, take orders, give orders, cooperate, act alone, solve
equations, analyze a new problem, pitch manure, program a
computer, cook a tasty meal, fight efficiently, die gallantly.
Specialization is for insects."  Robert Heinlein
 
WATER WARNING: 

Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation are
water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE rigorously
avoided.

SO MAKE SURE YOU BOIL IT FOR 10 MINUTES.

JUST MOISTENING YOUR LIPS WITH 1 DROP OF IMPURE WATER WILL AT THE
LEAST SO SICKEN YOU TO THE POINT WHERE YOU CAN'T TRAVEL!

ORGANISING THE CAMP:

In many survival situations there will already be someone in a
position of responsibility who will head the organization of the
camp and lead the development of survival plans.

If no established command structure exists among a group of
survivors, an organized committee should be established and
individuals nominated & elected with particular responsibilities
perhaps on a rational basis if it is a large group and rescue
does not come quickly.

Experience MUST BE pooled & immediate steps taken to discover
what skills individuals can contribute.

A roasta is ESSENTIAL for such daily chores as collecting
firewood & water, foraging, cooking, latrine digging and
maintenance tasks, and for hunting and trapping.

In a group of survivors there may be all kinds of people of
different ages and experience. People will have varied skills and
enjoy doing different tasks.

Everyone who is fit and able should take their turn at the
unpleasant tasks, unless their skills are so much in demand that
it would be a waste of their abilities.

But individual should do what they are good at, and be encouraged
to develop skills for which they show an aptitude.

Not only should everyone do their fair share but keeping busy
eliminates boredom and keeps up morale.

Anyone who is sick or injured gets the lightest jobs and is best
employed around camp until they have recovered

In a group there should ALWAYS be someone in camp, and they
should be able enough to operate the signals should a search
aircraft appear.

If you have sufficient numbers do NOT venture from the camp in
less than pairs.

Except in the desert, where the day will be largely spent
sheltering from the sun and early mornings & evenings are the
times for activity, daytime is likely to be fully occupied.

Evening however, may drag if not occupied by hunting. A gathering
around the camp fire will help establish a pattern and provide a
sense of discipline and normality.

It will give an opportunity to debrief on the day's events, to
plan for tomorrow and to discuss new strategies.

Music can be a great morale booster. If no instruments were
carried or survived, simple ones such as percussion or pan-pipes
can be easily improvised, and everyone can sing after a fashion.

Sing-songs, dancing, charades, quizzes and story-telling and even
praying all have their place and you may have talents that can
create more elaborate entertainment.

For private recreation any books will be invaluable particularly
this one and you can make pieces for board games such as draughts
and chess, using stones for counters or carving simple playing
pieces.

Even the lone survivor requires discipline and order. A regular
routine will help morale and exactly the same care MUST BE taken
to ensure that the camp is kept in good order.

At first there may be so much to do that the individual is too
tired to think of recreation, but boredom is even more DANGEROUS
for a person on its own an objective should be set each day
whether practical or for amusement.

CAMP HYGIENE:

Keeping healthy is an important factor for survival, so strict
hygiene should be practiced, not only personally but in the
planning and running of a camp.

Rubbish and latrines MUST BE kept away from the camp to reduce
the threat from flies.

Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation are
water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE RIGOROUSLY
AVOIDED.

Food scraps and other rubbish should be burned in the fire if
possible.

CAMP LAYOUT:

Select sites for all camp activities so that they do not
interfere with each other or pollute the living and cooking even
"cook-King" areas.

If you are camped by a river or stream, fix specific sections for
activities & keep to them.

Latrines should be dug downhill of the camp and away from the
water supply so that there is NO possible risk of seepage
polluting either.

ACTIVITY AREAS:

Establish a water point from which drinking water will be
collected and ensure that No one wash, cleans pots, scrubs
clothes or otherwise uses the stream upstream of this point.

Downstream choose a wash point for personal ablutions and clothes
washing and farther downstream of that select a place to be used
for cleaning cooking utensils.

REMEMBER: NEVER URINATE OR DEFECATE IN OR NEAR YOU WATER SUPPLY.

LATRINES AND RUBBISH DISPOSAL:

Latrines and rubbish disposal should be well away from the camp
and preferably downwind.

But not so far away that is inconvenient and people are tempted
to go elsewhere. If necessary cut a track to it to make access
easier.

It is important that proper latrines be established, even for the
lone survivor. With a group separate latrines for the sexes may
make a mixed group feel more comfortable and as much privacy as
possible should be provided.

Rubbish, after checking that it really has no USEFUL value,
should be burned, and what cannot be burned should be buried.

Even if you have it, do not use disinfectant in a latrine. Lime
or disinfectant would kill the USEFUL bacteria that break down
and then it will start smelling! After defecating cover the shit
with earth. Add small amounts of water that will promote the
bacteria.

Make a latrine cover to keep out flies and REMEMBER ALWAYS to
replace it, or flies that have walked all over shit may walk all
over your food, & start a cycle of infection.

If, after a time, a latrine starts to smell, dig a new one. Fill
in the old latrine. Build a new seat and burn old timbers &
covers.

DEEP TRENCH LATRINE:

Dig a trench about 1.25m (4ft) deep and 45cm (18in) wide. Build
up the sides with logs or rocks and earth to make a comfortable
sitting height, sealing the gaps between them.

Lay logs across to leave only a hole for use or (several if you
are a large group and making a communal latrine).

Empty wood ash on the logs to make a seal. It will also deter
flies. Make a lid of smaller wood to cover the opening (A*) or
use a large flat rock or a large leaf weighted down with stones. 

ALWAYS REMEMBER to replace it.

URINAL:

Dig a pit about 60cm (2ft) deep. Three-quarters fill it with a
large stone and then top up with earth, with a cone made from
bark set into it as a funnel. Site it close enough to the camp to
ensure that people bother to use it.

INCINERATOR:

If there is too much waste for the camp fire to burn, make a
separate fire in the latrine area. If a large can is available
use it as an incinerator. Bury any unburned refuse in a garbage
pit.

CAMP DISCIPLINE:

Do not prepare game in camp: bleed, gut and skin on the trap
line.

This attracts game to the traps where you want them, not into
your camp. Keep food  covered and off the ground. If kept in
trees MAKE SURE it is proof from tree-dwelling animals.

Replace lids on water bottles and containers IMMEDIATELY after
using them. Stow spare clothing and equipment in your shelter. Do
not leave it lying where it can get wet or burned.

Have a place for everything & keep things tidy. A tree for mess
tins & cooking utensils-hook them on twigs and branches, a place
for mugs and spoons & keep everything off the ground. Fix a box
as cupboard on a tree trunk.

NEVER LEAVE THE FIRE UNATTENDED

SOAP:

Washing with soap removes natural oils, leaving the skin less
waterproof and more prone to attack by germs. In survival
circumstances it is a mistake to wash with soap too often.

However, soap is the most widely used antiseptic, better than
many others, such as iodine, which destroy body tissue as well as
germs.

It is ideal for scrubbing hands before administering first-aid
for wounds. Save supplies for this.

SOAP MAKING: *

Two ingredients-an oil and alkali- are needed to make soap. The
oil can be animal fat (including fish) or vegetable but not
mineral. The alkali can be produced by burning wood or seaweed to
produce ash.

METHOD: *

Wash ash with water. Strain and boil with the oil. Simmer until
excess liquid are evaporated and allow to cool.

This soap will clean the skin but it is not antiseptic. Adding
Horseradish root or pine resin to the brew will make it
antiseptic.

Experiment will be necessary to get the balance in the mixture
right. Start with more oil than alkali because too much alkali
will dry the skin, leaving it sore.

SEATS:

NEVER SEAT ON DAMP GROUND!

Use something, even if it is only a log. If there is no
ready-made seat available, lash together a couple of low A-frame
support and rest another bough across them. Make a simple box
frame with cross-members linking legs from short lengths of wood.

TO MAKE A SEAT:

Weave vines or twine back and forth or sew on a piece of canvas
or plastic with thongs. Failing these, try a flat piece of wood
or metal laid across, or thin springy saplings lashed to the
frame and interwoven.

CAMP CHAIR: 

A comfy camp chair can be made in 10-15 min. and will give hours
of comfort. Select 2 stout forked sticks 4 feet long and 3 inches
thick.

The forks MUST BE at wide angle and cut with the straighter of
the 2 prongs about 9 to 10 inches long and the other wide angled
prong about 12 to 15 inches.

Cut another stout forked stick about 4 feet in length and leave
the prongs of this sufficiently long to hold the 2 sticks you
have cut before.

SHOWING THE 3 MAIN STICKS REQUIRED FOR CAMP CHAIR: 

Across the seat portion of the chair lash straight sticks about
an inch thick & continue these up the back of the chair.

On the seat portion they MUST BE close together but on the back
they can be spaced 2 or 3 inches apart.

SHOWING THE FRAMEWORK OF A CHAIR USING HOOKED STICKS:

There may be difficulties in finding 2 sticks with wide angled
prongs in which case you can make your chair by using 2 hooked
stakes.

The crotch of the hook should be 8 inches above the end  of the
stick and the sticks themselves should be about 3 feet 6 inches
long.

2 poles each about 5 feet long are laid one each through the
hooked portion of the sticks that have their upper ends lashed
together.

These 2 poles are lashed together behind the chair and a forked
pole leading from the upper end where the hooked stakes are
lashed comes back to these 2 side poles and is lashed again. This
gives you the framework for your chair.

A good bushman makes himself comfy wherever he may be. The simple
seat of course is either to roll up a log or select a site where
a fallen tree will serve you. Also you can use a few stones to
build up a platform and between these you can lay 2 or 3 poles
for your seat.

CAMP SEAT:

A very comfy fireside camp seat can be made by driving 2 short
stakes into the ground so that the forks are pointing outward
that is away from the opposite stake.

The bottom of the forks should be from 8 to 10 inches above the
ground level. 2 back forked stakes about 3 feet 6 inches long are
driven into the ground 15 to 18 inches behind these 2 short
stakes.

These back stakes should be driven in on a slight angle, leaning
away from the 2 forward forks. The forks of the rear stakes
should point outward.

Both short and long stakes should be not less than 2 inches thick
and the fork at least 1 and half inch thick.

The short stakes should be at a convenient distance from the
fireplace anything from 3 to 6 feet depending upon the size fire
you usually build.

Cut 2 cross bars each about 3 inches thick and cut nicks in these
so they fit snugly in place in the forks & connect front & rear
forks.

Length ways lay straight smooth sticks, 1 to 2 inches thick.
These MUST BE close together. Along the back that is to the tall
stakes, lash similar sticks from 2 to 3 inches apart.

This makes an excellent fireside camp seat and the comfort it
gives well repays the 1/2 hour it took to build.

CAMP BEDS 10 MINUTES: 

A sound night's rest is worth 10 min toil. Time spent in making a
camp bed that will keep you both comfy and warm are time well
spent even for Rambo. Cut 2 poles 6 to 7 inches thick & about 7
feet long.

Lay these parallel to each other 3 feet apart & to prevent them
from rolling put pegs at head and foot, driven well into the
ground with about a foot of the peg above the pole.

Cut about 20 or 30 straight strong sticks 3 and half feet long
and lay these every 4 inches across the 2 poles. Now on top of
these cross sticks place 2 poles 3 to 4 inches thick and 7 feet
long.

They should lie against the peg driven in to hold the 2 bed poles
secure. At the head end of the bed lay about 6 cross sticks on
top of these last 2 poles.

Now cut green brushwood, fern or waste green stuff such as sucker
growth or weedy bushy material and put this so that the main
stalks are length ways along the bed.

Pile it high between the top poles and lying across the cross
sticks. The resulting bed will be as springy & comfy as any you
have ever slept in your life.

TRAVOIS: 

For bringing fuel or your prepared kill back to camp, or for
other loads a travois will work if the ground is fairly smooth-it
will not on rough and boulder strewn terrain.

Choose two boughs with some spring to them and lash cross-piece
as for the ladder. Add additional struts to provide closer
support.

Pull the load on its runners like a sled. If you are pulling
loads over a short distance, lash the runners to come to a single
grip (*A) For a larger version leave the last space clear or fit
leather or fabric shoulder straps to haul it by (*B).

SHOWING THE FRAMEWORK WITH TABLE TOP POLES AND SEAT POLES: 

For the framework select 2 forked stakes at least 3 inches thick
& 4 to 5 inches long. The length depends upon the soil and how
far you will have to drive the stakes into the ground to make
them quite secure.

The lower end of each stake is sharpened and the head beveled.
The first stake should be driven well into the earth so that the
lowest part of the crotch of the fork is 3 feet above the ground.

The prong of the fork should be pointing out from the length you
want your table say from 4 to 7 feet and drive in the other stake
with its prong also pointing outward that is away from the first
stake.

This stake MUST also be driven the same depth into the ground as
the first stake. Cut 4 strong straight stakes 4 feet 6 to 5 feet
in length and at least 2 1/2 inches thick.

Place these with one end in the crotch of the forks and at right
angles to the line of the forked stakes.

Note where the sticks cross each other in the forks and scarf out
cuts in each so that the 2 will nest together in the crotch.

These side poles carry the table poles and the seat poles so they
MUST seat securely in the forks.

On to these side poles and about 2 feet above ground level 2
strong poles 2 inches thick are securely lashed.

These poles are for the table and later straight sticks are laced
side by side across these poles for the actual table top. 15
inches above the ground level 2 very strong poles 3 inches thick
and 7 to 8 feet in length are lashed.

These lashings MUST BE very tight to make these 2 poles secure to
the 2 side poles and also to the forked stakes you first drove
into the ground. These poles serve both as a bracing to carry the
seat.

Your table is now ready for finishing. Cut short straight sticks
for the top. You will need 8 sticks for every foot in length of
table top.

The seat-sticks at least 3 to 4 inches thick are cut 1 foot
longer than the length of the table.

You will need at least 3 of these seat sticks for each side. They
are not lashed to the cross poles but allowed to lie on them so
that the distance of the seat from the table can be adjusted by
either pulling or pushing them in.

SHOWING HOW TO BRACE YOUR TABLE IF THE GROUND IS SOFT OR SANDY: 

If the ground is soft or loose sand your table will require
bracing and this can be done simply by 2 diagonal braces from the
table level of each of the forked stakes to the foot of the
other. Where the bracing cross they should be lashed.

An alternative is to cut 2 five foot forks of the stakes in the
ground. Their own butts MUST BE firmly seated on the ground &
held from slipping by a stout peg driven well in the ground.

This type of structure is recommended for a portable table. When
securely lashed the whole table is EXTREMELY strong. A fly thrown
over the top bar can be used to give shade.

OTHER TYPE CAMP TABLE DRY COUNTRY:

It is simply to dig 2 trenches, 2 or 3 feet apart on their inside
edges and at least 10 to 12 inches deep.

Only suitable when earth is clay or firm enough to be dug in
clean sods. Sods are used to give height to the seat.

STICK HAMMOCK:

A camp loom is set up and the hammock is woven using vines,
twisted bark fibbers, grass rope etc. for the weaving and sticks
about 1 inch thick for the cross parts. The hammock should be at
least 3 feet wide by 7 feet long.

The end 2 spreaders should be 2 inches thick & from these short
lengths of rope are brought to the central rope by means of which
the hammock is suspended.

Ropes from each of the 4 corners will also serve to suspend the
hammock. A grass mattress also woven on the camp loom makes an
excellent cover for the hammock.

CAMP LOOM:

2 stout forked stakes about 2 inches thick are cut and driven
into the ground with their lower prongs 3 feet above the ground
and facing away from the direction you wish to work.

The distance between the stakes should be at least 6 inches wider
than the widest article you want to weave. Across the forks a
cross bar about one inch thick is laid. It is advisable to trim
this cross bar of twigs and roughness and it should be fairly
strong.

8 or 9 feet from the cross bar and on the side farthest from the
prongs a row of straight smooth stakes each about 4 feet long is
driven into the ground so that there are about 2 inches between
the centers of the stakes.

These stakes should be trimmed of any side twigs or roughness. A
weaving bar a few inches longer than the width of the row of
stakes is cut and laid on the ground parallel and about 6 inches
in front of this row of stakes. Your camp loom is now ready to be
set up for a weaving.

An alternative to the row of stakes & a considerable improvement
if a situation is available is to select a site where 2 trees are
at a convenient distance apart.

At ground level and about 7 feet above the ground, 2 stout cross
bars, 2 inches thick are lashed to the tree trunks and to these
crossbars a series of smooth vertical sticks are lashed at the
top & bottom. These sticks are about 2 inches apart at centers.

TO WEAVE ON CAMP LOOM: 

Lengths of the weaving material are tied to the stakes are shown
brought back over the crossbars & then forward & between the
stakes & then tied to the weaving bar in front of the row of
stakes (this is the  "weft" of your weaving).

A ball of material is tied to the outside strand and then passed
between the 2 rows of strands (this is the warp) with the weaving
bar lying on the ground.

The weaving bar is lifted above the weft and the ball returned
again between the weft threads. Repeat by alternatively lifting
and lowering the weaving bar.

CAMP MATTRESS OR STICK HAMMOCK:
 
The weft or long strands are set up as for weaving, but instead
of warp (cross strands) tufts of grass, fern or other material or
sticks for a stick hammock are passed between the weft.

In weaving a camp mattress it is advisable to put in a warp tie
every second or third lift. This binds the sides and prevents the
outside weft strands spreading.

Strands of sun dried grass, loosely spun can be woven into a
covering for a camp bed if you are without blanket.

When weaving for this purpose MAKE SURE that the warp strands are
pushed closely up to each other.

Do not try and make a camp blanket too heavy. It is far better to
make 2 light grass covering than one heavy one since it is a
number of layers rather than extreme thickness of 1 layer which
keeps you warm.

WEAVING A CAMP HAMMOCK: 

Normally a hammock is made by using the netting tie and netting
needle, but a serviceable hammock can be woven on the camp loom
from bush materials.

The ball of warp is passed around the weft threads to from an
overhand knot on the lower lay of the weft and these knots pulled
tights make the weaving secure.

LADDER:

Food collecting, shelter building, trap setting and a whole lot
of other task will be easier with a ladder. This one is easily
made by lashing cross-piece to two long poles. Because these are
set an angle, not parallel, the rungs will not be able to slip
down.

BUSH LADDER:

Easily made. Select 2 long straight poles cut to equal length.
Lash the thin ends together.

Spread the butts or thick ends so that they are about 2 1/2 to 3
feet apart. To these lash the rungs & MAKE CERTAIN that the
lashings are good and tight. Lashing the rungs is made easier if
you lift the butts on to a log or a couple of big stones.

It will be easier to pass the lashing material under the poles.
MAKE SURE that the top end is narrower than the bottom end, it is
more solid that way.

SINGLE LADDER ROPE: 

Cut as many hard wood chocks 1 1/2 to 2 inches thick as you
require for you ladder. These are placed every 15 to 18 inches
apart. The chocks should be about 4 inches across and can be cut
from either square or round timber.

Bore a hole through the center of each chock. This hole should
not be more than 1/8 inch larger than the diameter of the rope.

Thread the rope through the holes in the chocks and then starting
at one end open the strand of the rope and slip in a 1/2 inch
thick hard wood peg about 3 inches long.

Bind the rope below the peg. Slide the chock down and measure off
the distance to the next step.

EMERGENCY LAMP: 

A CANDLE HOLDER FROM A BOTTLE:

Open flame is DANGEROUS in a tent, so cut off the base of a clear
glass bottle. A very easy way to cut the glass cleanly is to heat
a piece of thin wire to red hot.

Bend this around the bottle where you want to cut it
alternatively tie a piece of grease-soaked string round the
bottle and burn it.

Then when the hot wire or burning string is around the bottle,
immerse the bottle in cold water. The glass will break off evenly
at the place where the wire or string encircled it.

CAMP BROOM: 

A bundle of green straight sticks each not much thicker than a
match stick is collected and bound tightly to a central handle,
the business end of the broom is then trimmed off.

BUSH HOE:  (EFFICIENT!)

Select a dead or half dead branch of hard wood, 4 to 6 inches
thick with a side branch from 5 to 6 feet long & 1 inch & half
thick coming off it at a fairly wide angle. Trim the side branch
so that it's smooth.

With your machete trim the main branch so that it is a hook to
the handle part. See that it is sharpened to a chisel edge. This
bush hoe is quite an efficient digging tool particularly if the
digging end is fire hardened.

BUSH SLED: 

There are occasions when it IS NECESSARY to move a heavy load and
a bush sled can be easily made from a forked branch of a tree.
The branch is cut with the prongs of the fork a couple of feet
behind the end of the main branch.

A rope or other means of towing the sled is fastened on to this
main part of the branch & across the forks a few straight sticks
are laid & the load placed on top of these.

****NOTE FROM THE CO-AUTHOR, DONT BITCH TO ME TO HARSHLY THE 
FOLLOWING KNOTS NEED A GOOD TRANSLATOR WHICH I AIN'T, SO BARE
WITH ME ONCE MORE, I AM STILL WORKING ON  IT. THE FINAL RESULT
WILL BE UPLOADED AS SOON AS POSSIBLE MEANWHILE THERE ARE MANY
TIPS WHICH CAN BE USEFULL TO YOU ALL. THANKS

#NOEUD PLAT ALSO CALLED SAILOR KNOT OR RICE KNOT#:

IT IS THE MOST USED KNOT. USES:    

To knot 2 ropes of the same size. To knot 2 cloth bands or the
ends of a bandage Knot 2 grass blade or supple hay.

Fold the strand left on right fig 1 and lace it fig 2*. Fold
again now right on left as fig 3* then lace it fig 4*. On each
side, the strand comes out side by side fig 5* 

NOTE: IT IS THE MOST USED KNOT.

But REMEMBER that it does not hold at all for 2 cables. If this
knot is not kept taut the knot has a tendency to undo itself when
the tension goes down.

FISHERMEN KNOT: A VERY GOOD ALL AROUND KNOT!

USES:

1)   To tie ropes that MUST go in water. Also ropes of different
     size. Ropes that are very slippery or greasy.

2)   Ropes that are rather rigid. Ropes that will be strongly
     shaken.
 
3)   Can also be used #pour la jugulaire# since one can regulate
     it by spreading the 2 simple knot. 

4)   Can also be used by exception for semi- metallic cable #a
     ame de chanvre and leather tongues#.

Fold the ropes on 15cm length and with each free strand (A B*)
make a simple knot around the other rope fig *1 then pull taut by
pulling on A & B as fig 2 and 3 shows.

NOTE:

1)   Ropes are knotted in straight line.
2)   Knot easy to undo even when wet.

3)   When you tie them the simple knots MUST BE done so that the
     strands come out side by side.

3 ESCAPE KNOTS: *p266

USES:     Come down a tree, a high beam and to retrieve the rope
either by shaking it or pulling on second strand 2 & 3. 

THE FIRST ONE MUST BE CAREFULLY DONE OTHER WISE VERY DANGEROUS.
The other offer all security but a longer rope.

1)   #make a noeud de galere don't le petit brin coulisse#, at
     least 0.80m as fig =1.

Roll around the branch and come back in the knot loop fig=2* #
Remonter et placer le brin ganse# between the branch & rope  as
#noeud de bois# fig=3 .

2)   In the middle of the rope make a solid loop fig 1 as #noeud
de plein poing, haulage model C or noeud de milieu # (below).

With one strand wrap around the branch and pass in the loop
and come down along this strand.

3)   Bend the rope in its middle and put down on the branch the
following loop.

# Passer un brin ganse dans la ganse# & tighten around the branch

#Passe l'autre brin ganse dans la new ganse# tighten by pulling
on the first strand. Come down by this strand.

NOTE:     Make the #ganse #G long enough.

REEF KNOT OR SQUARE KNOT: 

USES:     ONE OF THE BEST KNOWN KNOT

It is used to tie rope of same thickness and will hold firm even
under strain yet maybe fairly easily untied.

IT IS NOT RELIABLE FOR ROPES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, NOR SHOULD
IT BE USED WITH NYLON -IT WILL SLIP.

Reef knots can be tied to other material and is a good knot to
use in: First- AID. It will lie flat against the patient.

Pass the RIGHT end over the LEFT and then under it.
Then take the LEFT over the RIGHT and under it.

Check it - the 2 loops should slide on each other. If you have
crossed the wrong way you will have a "granny" which may not hold
and is difficult to untie if subjected to strain.  

Tighten by pulling both the strands on each side, or just the
live ends, but BE SURE it tightens properly. 

To be doubly sure finish off the knot by making a half-hitch with
the live ends on either side of the knot. 

SIMPLE KNOTS:  

OVERHAND KNOT: THE SIMPLEST OF ALL KNOTS. 

Make a loop and pass the lie end back through it. It has little
purpose on its own except to make an end-stop on a rope, but it
is part of many other knots.

JOINING ROPES:

SHEET BEND:
USES: FOR JOINING ROPES OF THE SAME OR DIFFERENT THICKNESS. 

It can be more effective than the reef knot with those of equal
thickness.

IT IS IDEAL FOR JOINING DIFFERENT MATERIALS ESPECIALLY WHEN WET
OR FROZEN ROPES.

Simple to tie, suing up little of the rope length and swiftly
unknotted if it has not been subjected to strain.

IT NEVER SLIPS IF CORRECTLY MADE & STRAIN IS NOT ERRATIC BUT
CONSTANT.

1)   Make a loop in one rope. Take the live end of the other (*A)
right around behind the loop to the front where it is carried
over itself and then tucked down through the loop.

2)   Draw it tight and ease into shape as strain is increased.

DOUBLE SHEET BEND:

USES:     A knot that is even more secure than the Sheet Bend. It
          is USEFUL with WET ROPE.

Especially if they are of very different thickness but provides a
good strong join in ropes of even thickness too.

It is USEFUL where strain is not constant & an ordinary Sheet Ben
may slip.

1)   Make a loop in the thicker rope. Take the live end of the
thinner rope through the loop, beneath the thicker live end &
then forward on the outside of the loop and right around it.
Bring the thin live end back between itself and the outside of
the thick loop.  

2)   Take the thin live end completely around the loop again and
back through the same place on the outside of the thick loop.

3)   Draw it tight and ease into shape.

NOTE:     If not tightened these knots tend to work loose.

DO NOT USE:    With smooth material such as nylon fishing line or
silk. 

OVERHAND LOOP: 

A very quickly made knot for throwing over a projection The loop
is fixed and cannot be tightened so the projection MUST point
away from the direction of strain. Double the end of the rope and
tie an overhand knot with the loop.

FIGURE OF 8: 

This makes a much more effective end-stop than the overhand knot.
Make a loop. Carry the live end first behind, then around, the
standing part. Bring it forward through the loop.

FIGURE OF 8 LOOP:

More secure than the overhand loop, this is made in the same way
as the figure of 8, but with the line doubled, using the loop as
the live end. It can be used over a spike anchor for a belaying
rope.

REWOVEN FIGURE OF 8:  

USES:     A USEFUL anchoring knot where the top end of a
          projection is out of reach.

Make a loose figure of 8 along the rope. Pass the live end around
the anchor and feed it back around the figure of 8 following
exactly. Ease tight.

FISHERMAN'S KNOT:

USES:     A USEFUL knot for joining together springy materials
          such springy vines or wire. From Tarzan or Jane!

It is good for WET OR SLIPPERY LINES & particularly suitable for
joining gut fishing line. Soak the gut first to make it pliable.

Very secure, it will hold well with thin springy but it is very
difficult to untie.

Use when you do not trust the reef knot or sheet bend. It is NOT
springy for bulky ropes or nylon lines.

1)   Lay lines beside each other, the ends in opposite direction.
Carry the live end of one line around the other and make a simple
overhand knot.

2)   Repeat with the live end of the other line.

3)   Springy tighten the knots and slide them towards each other
ease them to rest well against one another, completing the
tightening process.

DOUBLE FISHERMAN'S:

USES:     This is a stronger version of the springy knot. It
          should NOT be used for nylon fishing line, nylon ropes
          or bulky ropes.

1)   Carry the live end of one line around the other, then around
     both.

2)   Carry the live end back through the two loops you just made.

3)   Repeat the pattern with the end of the other line.

4)   Slide the 2 knots together and tighten them, using them to
     rest well against each other. Apply strain gradually.

TAPE KNOT:

USES:     USEFUL knot for joining flat materials such as leather
or webbing straps, tape and possibly even for joining sheets or
other fabrics when improvising escape rope. Experiment.

1)   Make an overhand knot in the end of one "tape" Do not pull
     it tight.

2)   Feed the other tape through it so that it follows exactly
     the shape of the first knot.

3)   The live end should be well clear of the knot so that they
     will not slip back when you tighten it.

LOOP MAKING: BOWLINE: (Not Bowling?)    

USES:     This quickly tied knot makes a loop that will neither
tighten nor slip under strain. **Montain* It is used in the end
of a lifeline or wherever such a fixed loop is needed.

1)   Make a small loop a little way along the rope.  

2)   Bring the live end up through it, around the standing part
     and back down through the loop.

3)   Pull on the live end to tighten easing the knot into shape.
     Finish off with a half-hitch. (Not with 1/2 bitch)     

RUNNING BOWLINE: (Not Running Bowling!) 

USES:     Used in any situation requiring a loop which will
tighten easily. Make a small bowline and pass the long end of the
rope through the loop.

NEVER tie a running bowline around the waist, particularly when
climbing. It acts like a hangman's noose and could kill you or
others.

TRIPLE BOWLINE: 

EQUIPMENT HAULAGE OR AS SIT-SLING OR LIFTING HARNESS: 
		**good for montain**

Another Bowline made with a double line. Form a loop, pass the
doubled live end through the loop, behind the standing part &
back through the loop. This produces 3 loops which can be used
for: hauling or sit-sling. 

With one loop around each thigh and the other around the chest.
It takes some practices to get the proportions right, so learn to
tie the triple bowline BEFORE you need to use it.

BOWLINE ON THE BIGHT: ***good for montain**

USES:     This is USEFUL to support or to lift anyone from a
crevasse or elsewhere where they cannot climb out.

Make it with a doubled line, producing 2 loops springy will
springy nor jam. It forms a kind of springy, one loop around the
buttock, the other around the upper body.

As with the triple bowline, practice this knot BEFORE you need to
know how to use it.

You may find many uses for fixed double loops. House and -ship
-painters have been known to support theeir hanging platforms with
a knot like this at each end.

If the platform has a pole projecting at each corner, the loops
of the bow-line-on-bight can be slipped over. Notch the poles to
prevent the ropes from slipping off.

1)   Using the doubled line form a loop and pass the live end
     through it.

2)   Bring this end down *A) and over the end of the larger
double loop now formed. Ease it back up to behind the standing
part. Pull on the large double loop to tighten.

MANHARNESS HITCH: OR BUTTERFLY KNOT: OR ARTILLERY KNOT:
     ***good for montain**

USES:     This makes a non-slip knot. It has the advantage that
it can be  made along the length of the rope, but does not
require access to an end.  

Several loops could be put on a rope for harnessing people to
pull together in haulage or raising a weight.

Also a good way of preparing a rope for climbing. Toes and wrist
can be put into the loops to carry the weight so that a rest can
be taken when tired.

1)   Make a long loop in the rope but look closely at the
     drawing.

2)   Allow the left side of the rope to cross over the loop.

3)   Twist the loop 

4)   Pass it over the left part of the rope and through the upper
     part of the original loop.  

5)   Pull the knot gently into shape ease tight and test it good.

NOTE:     If this knot is not ease tight correctly it is possible
to end up with a slipping loop. (OOOPSSS!)

Different ways of making this knot may be found where the loop is
not twisted.

The final strength of the loop does not appear to be affected
either by making this twist or not, nor if the twist should
straighten out in use.

LADDERS:  

A ladder can be made by simply tying as many Manharness hitches
in a rope as you need for hand and foot holds.

It could also be made with rungs, using strong sticks or pieces
of wreckage. Use 2 ropes or a long rope doubled, with manharness
hitches placed equally along both sides to make a rope ladder.

Pass sticks through the corresponding loops, as you make the
loops and ease tight to hold the sticks firmly.

Allow the sticks to project a reasonable distance on either side
of the ropes for safety and test each for strength.

LADDER OF KNOTS: 

A series of overhand knots tied at intervals along a smooth rope
will make CLIMBING it much easier. There is a fast way of making
these once you have the knack, it's a snack.

1)   Leaving a reasonably long free end, make a half-hitch near
     the end of a short piece of branch or log.

2)   Continue making loose half-hitches along the log-the
	diameter of which will fix the spacing of the knots.

3)   Pass the start end back through all the loops and then slide
     them all off the end of the log.

4)   As each turn of rope comes through the centre of the
half-hitch loops to the other end shape and tighten each knot.

If you know the length of your rope you can estimate the number
of knots you need.

With a half-hitch for every knot, choose a thickness of log to
also the required number of turns. And therefore the required
numbers of knots.

HONDA KNOT: (AH! SO!)

USES:     This another knot that makes a free-running noose, but
this one gives a clear circular loop suitable for THROWING. It is
a lasso for Rambo! 

You may find the use for this lasso in many ways but, in a
survival situation, if you have only one length of rope, it would
be unwise to spend much time and energy trying to catch animals
in this way.

It takes a lot of practice. When you really need the rope it may
be worn and damaged from your lassoing efforts.

However, it is worth making one to experiment with so that you
have the skill already, should you need it for actual survival.

A)   Start with an overhand knot. 
B)   Form a loop further down the rope.
C)   Double the rope into a bight between loop and knot.

D)   Pass the bight through the loop.
E)   Tighten the loop around the bight.

F)   Pass the long end of the rope through the new eye formed by
     the bight. 

NOTE:

Before trying to use a lasso on a animal consider its strength
against your own.

A large animal can and almost certain will run. If you are
holding the rope firmly it my dragged away and you will loose
your meal and your rope.

If the rope is anchored to you. YOU may be dragged along and
severely injured. Can you make use of a firm anchor to carry the
strain ? A turn around a tree trunk or a rock may secure what is
too powerful for you to restrain on your own.

HITCHES: 

These are knots for attaching ropes to posts, bars (HIC!) &
poles. (Not Polish?)

ROUND TURN AND 2 HALF-HITCH:

This is the best way to secure a rope to a post. It can take
strain from almost any direction. Carry rope around behind the
post then around again.

Bring the live end over and back under the standing end and
through the loop thus formed. Tighten and repeat the half hitch
to make the knot secure.

CLOVE-HITCH: (not close-bitch!)

An effective attachment when strain is perpendicular to the
horizontal. It is not so good when strain comes at an angle or
the direction of strain is erratic-this could loosen the hitch.

1)   Pass the live end over and around the bar.
2)    Bring it across itself and around the bar again.
     
3)   Carry the live end up and under itself moving in the
     opposite direction to the standing end. 
4)   Close up and pull tight.

It is possible to make a clove hitch in loops on a rope and to
put the whole knot ready-made on to the spar.

If you have access to the spar end. Many experienced knot makers
do this, Make a loose clove hitch and slip it off the spar. Lay
it down and copy the loops formed by the rope. Slip on to the
spar and tighten.

TIMBER HITCH:  

This knot is used mainly as a start knot for Lashing, but can
also be used for Hoisting, and for: Dragging or Towing Heavy logs
(or dear deer! EVE-HAND dear Jane!)

1)   Bring the live end around the bar and loosely around the
     standing end.

2)   Carry it forward and tuck it beneath the rope encircling the
bar. Twist it around as many times as comfortably fit. Tighten
the knot by gently pulling on the standing end until a firm grip
is achieved.

KILLICK HITCH OR ANCHOR HITCH:

Use for securing a line to an anchoring weight. It can be used to
secure an actual anchor for use in water or to hold back one end
of a throwing line.

Make a timber hitch around one end of the rock or weight and
tighten. Carry the line along the weight and make a half-hitch.

MARLIN SPIKE HITCH: (SEA KNOT**)

This is an instant but temporary knot for securing a mooring line
to a post or for dragging over the top of any upright peg or
pole.

It is particularly USEFUL when tightening a short stout stick to
the line it is possible to gain extra purchase on the line to
administer a firmer pull.

1)   Form a loop in the rope-study the drawing carefully.

2)   Bring one side of the loop back up over the standing end.

3)   Drop this over the pole-the pole coming between the extended
loop and the standing part. Pull the live end to tighten.

QUICK-RELEASE KNOT OR HIGHWAY-MAN HITCH OR THIEF KNOT: 
     **mountain climbing

This knot is secure but will come untied with a single sharp tug
on the live end.

It is recommended for temporarily anchoring line while working-or
for situations which need a quick release.

1)   Carry a bog bight around a post or a rail.
2)    Bring a bight from the standing end through the first
     bight.

3)   From the live end into a further bight and push the doubled
end through the loop of the second bight. Pull on the standing
end to tighten the knot. 

4) TO RELEASE:  Pull sharply on the live end.

SHORTENING ROPE SHEEPSHANK:

Treble the line. From half-hitches in the outer lengths and slip
them over the adjoining bends.

Or, instead of half-hitch, when a loop is formed in the standing
part, pull a bight through it and slip this over the bend in the
rope. Tighten as you gradually increase tension.

PART 2:

Making a sheepshank more secure by passing a stick through the
bend and behind the standing part.

Or, if you have access to the rope's end, pass that through the
bight. A stick would make this more secure.

NEVER CUT A ROPE UNNECESSARILY.

You NEVER know when you may be glad of its full length. A knotted
rope has fully half the strength of a  continuous one. Use the
sheepshank to shorten it or to exclude a damaged or weakened
section.

SECURING LOADS BY WAKOS TRANSPORT KNOT:

A KNOT INVALUABLE FOR SECURING A HIGH LOAD TO A BOAT, RAFT,
SLEDGE ETC. OR FOR TYING DOWN A ROOF.

 Maximum purchase is achieved by pulling down with all your
weight and finally securing with 2 half-hitches.

If it comes loose undo the hitches, retighten and secure. This
knot can also be used for a line across a river or chasm which
needs tightening from time to time.

1)   Make a loop in the rope. Further down, towards the end of
     the rope, make a bight.

2)   Pass the bight through the loop.
3)   Make a twist in the new lower loop. Pass the end of the rope
     around securing point and up through this twist.

4)   Pull on end to tighten.  
5)   With end make 2 half-hitches around the lower ropes to
     secure. Undo these to adjust and retighten.

PRUSIK KNOT: (Yavohl!)

A knot that makes a sliding loop especially USEFUL when attached
along a climbing rope.

It will NOT slip under tension, but will slide along the rope
when tension is released.

Also USEFUL for ropes that need retensioning from time to tie,
such as tent guy-line.

A pair of prusik knots along a rope provide hand and foot hold
for climbing or for swinging along a horizontal line. They are
slid along the main rope as you proceed.

1)   Pass a bight around the main rope and pull the ends through.
     Keep this loose.

2)   Take the ends over again and back down through the loop.
     Ease tight. Do not allow the circuits to overlap.

3)   This gives the appearance of four turns on the main rope. 

Mountaineers sometimes take the ends round again and back through
the loop to give the appearance of 6 turns on the main rope (*B).

4)   The Prusik knot can be made using a fixed splices loop in
which case pass the bight over the main rope and back through
itself & repeat.

CLIMBING NOTE: 

When used for climbing, or travelling along a rope, a spliced
loop is SAFEST. If you have no spliced, join the ends after the
knot is made.

     TEST JOINS RIGOROUSLY BEFORE RELYING UPON THEM.

LASHINGS:

Methods of lashing spars, logs, poles etc. together differ
according to the position of the components. Learn their
technique in making shelters, rafts & other structures.

SQUARE LASHING: 

This is for the lashing spars which cross. Most effective when
they do so at right angles.

1)   Make a timber hitch carrying the line alternatively above
and below both spars in a complete circuit before securing it.
Then carry the rope over and under both spars in an anti
-clockwise direction.

2)   After 2 or 3 circuits make a full turn around a spar and
     circuit in the opposite direction.

3)   Completes the circuits with a half hitch around one spar and
     secure with a clove hitch on a spar at right angle.

ROUND LASHING:

This is for lashing spars alongside each other or extending the
length of a spar. Begin with a clove hitch around both spars then
bind the rope around them.

Finish knot with a clove hitch at the other end force a wedge
under the lashing to make them really tight. If the spars are
vertical bang the wedge in downward.

DIAGONAL LASHING:

An alternative to square lashing which is more effective, when
spars do not cross at right angle, or more especially when the
spars are under strain and have to be pulled towards one another
for tying.

1)   Begin with a timber hitch around both spars, place
     diagonally.

2)   Trap both spars with a few turns of rope over the timber
     hitch then make a full turn under the bottom spar.

3)   Trap across the other diagonal then bring the rope back
voter one spar and make two or three circuits of the spars above
the upper spar and below the lower.

4)   Finish with a clove-hitch on a convenient spar.

SHEAR LASHING:  (Sheer Laughing?)  

For tying the ends of 2 spars at an angle, when making a A frame.
Begin with a clove hitch around one spar.

Bind around both spars - this binding should not be very tight.
Bring rope between the spars and frap a couple around the
binding.

Finish with a clove hitch around the other spar. Tighten by
opening up the shears. A similar method can be used around 3
poles to make a tripod.

Make turns around all 3 legs and frapping in the 2 gaps. The feet
of A frames and tripod should be anchored to stop them spreading.

KNOTS NOT:

The following knots are not made to be used for metallic or liana
for there are others to that effect. All those knots are the
combined result of 3 elements.

1) #la ganse# 2) Loop or half key 3) #tour mort#.

It is often USEFUL to fix by a light #surliure# from a few turns
of thread the floating strand of knots.

These #surliures# do not take any effort or strain but increase
considerably the security. There are good and bad knots.

A good knot is easily and quickly made, it is solid, the greater
the strain the tighter it becomes. Also easy to undo and of nice
looking. A bad knot does not hold or becomes impossible to undo.

One does not learn knots by snobbism but to use them and he MUST
also know the usages for a good knot man know right away what
knot or combination to use for the particular problem at hand.


KNOT IN FIG OF 8 OR GERMAN KNOT: (Javohl!)

USES:     Prevent the end of rope to pass through a hole. 

2)   Rope Ladder.
3)   Can be used as a Slippery Knot.

Make a loop #1 then pass behind the #brin engage# and come back
by the other side in the loop fig 2.

KNOTS TO ATTACHE BIG CABLE: (CLARK CABLE?)   

2 very big cable are easily attache by a Carrick Knot. The two
free strand will be attached together with a small sting thus the
Carrick Knot will not be too strong and easy to untie thus SAFER
as well. 

To MAKE SURE that it will resist strong traction you MUST MAKE
SURE that your #episssure# has a total length to 15 times the
diameter of the cable.


PHILOSOPHY ?!? OF ROPE:? YES !
ROPES AND LINES. 

Ropes can be made from any pliable, fibrous material producing
strands of sufficient length & strength.

Nylon rope have the advantage of great inherent strength,
lightness, resistance to water, insects and rot.

However nylon rope should not be the automatic choice if choosing
equipment. Nylon has the disadvantage that it can melt if
subjected to heat and friction on a rope produces heat.

It is also slippery when wet. While its tensile trength is good,
nylon also tends to snap if subjected to tension over an edge -
it does not have to be a very sharp edge either, so BE CAREFUL of
this.

TYPES OF ROPE:

Kernmantel type encloses a central core of strands in an outer
sheath. Easier to handle, except when icy or wet, but no strong
as hawser. It can unravel if cut.

Traditional Hawser-laid rope has 3 bundles of fibres twisted
together. If one is severed the others may hold.

CHOOSING ROPE:

Match type, thickness and length of rope you carry to the demands
you expect to make on it.

Nylon will have advantages in very damp climates and when weight
is critical but REMEMBER its drawbacks. Thickness of 7mm (5/16in)
and below are difficult to handle.

Rope about 9-10mm (3/8in) is usually recommended for Lashing,
Throwing and Mountaineering. ***

It can be used for safety lines and for climbing, provided belay
and abseiling techniques are used.

It is not thick enough for a hand over hand and foot grip. A
length of 30-40m (100-125ft) would then be as much as can be
carried without encumbrance.

Climbing rope MUST BE elastic, to absorb some of the shock,
without putting enormous strain on anyone who falls. ***2 rpt in
climb..

See if it has the approval of official mountaineering bodies or
conforms to the British Standard 3184 (for Hawser laid ropes) 

TAKING CARE OF ROPE:

Rope MUST BE protected from unnecessary exposure to damp or
strong sunlight and in case of natural fibres from attack by
rodent and insects.

If it does get wet do not force-dry it in front of a fire. Do not
unnecessarily drag it along or leave it on the ground.

Dirt can penetrate and particles of grit work away at the fibres
from inside the rope. If weather conditions will make drying
possible, it is worth to wash a very dirty rope in clean water.

Try to keep a rope for the job for which it was intended. Do not
use climbing rope as clothesline or lashing if you can AVOID it.
Though in survival situation you may have to use the same length
for many purposes.

Whipping the end of the rope will prevent fraying. To prevent a
rope becoming tangled, store and carry it in a coil or skein.

It will be easier to handle and to pay out when needed. Rope is a
valuable equipment. You may have to trust your life to it. Do
your best to kept in good condition

SIMPLE COIL:

Make a coil of rope 35-45cm (14-18in) in diameter, keeping each
circle of the rope alongside the next without twisting or
tangling. Leave a length at each end ready for fastening.

1): Bend one end back along the coil and wrap it with the other
	end.

2)   Feed the "wrapping" end through the loop and pull to secure

3): Tie off with a reef knot shown later.

FOR LONGER ROPES:

If you wish to carry long ropes over your shoulder or suspended
from a belt or from a pack, form a skein.

Loop the rope backward and forward over your arm, letting it hang
down about 35-60cm (18-24in) long. Leave the ends free.

Take both ends together and wrap them several times around the
skein. Make a loop and take this through the top part of the
#skein# and finally pass the ends through this loop. Now tie off
on to your pack with a reef knot.

THROWING A ROPE:

It is easier to throw a coil of rope than to attempt to sling a
loose end - whether you are throwing upwards or outward - and it
helps to split the coil so that it does not tangle.

Have a large knot or weight on the throwing end. MAKE SURE that
you keep hold of the other end ! Think about the anchored end and
what will happen to it when the other end reaches target.

If throwing a lifeline for instance to a fast-moving raft on
water, are you going to be pulled into the water yourself? 
Anchor the end to a tree or weight.

ALWAYS over-throw a line so that the recipient stands a good
chance of catching part of the rope even if they this the end.

Coil half the rope on to the fingers and the palm of the right
hand, then raise the index finger and coil the remainder on the
other fingers only.

Pass the second coil back to the left hand. As you throw release
the right-hand coil a split second before the left.

Anchor your end if you think there will be sudden strain on it
and your position is precarious.

FOR A LONG THROW:

Tie a suitable missile to the end of the rope. Coil the rope
carefully on the ground or loop it loosely over the other hand so
that it will pay out freely as you throw the missile. Don't risk
loosing your end of the rope.

Tie that to an anchor, a heavy stone for instance. Use a Killick
Hitch* (later). If throwing a weighted rope over a branch keep
out of its path at is swings back towards the throwing point! If
throwing a lifeline PLEASE don't knock out the person that you
are trying to help.

ROPE MAKING: THE MA-KING OF ROPES & CORDS:

Almost any natural fibrous material can be spun into good
serviceable rope or cord and many material which have a length of
12 to 24 inches or more can be braided or plaited.

Ropes of up to 3 and 3 inches diameter can be laid by four people
& breaking strains from bush made rope of 1 inch diameter range
from 100 to as high as 2,000 or 3,000 lbs.

BREAKING STRAINS:

Taking a three lay rope of 1 inch diameter as standard the
following table of breaking strains may serve to give a fair idea
of general strengths of various materials.

For safety sake ALWAYS regard the lowest figure as the breaking
strain unless you know otherwise.

Green grass= 100 to 250 lbs. / Bark fibre= 500 to 1,500 lbs. /
Palm fibre = 650 to 2,000 lbs. Sedges*= 2,000 to 2,500 lbs. /
Monkey ropes (liana)=  560 to 700 lbs.

Lawyer vine  (calamus)*= 1/2 inch diam = 1,200 lbs. Double the
diameter quadruple the breaking strain. Halve the diameter & you
reduce the breaking strains to 1 fourth. (1/4).

PRINCIPLE OF ROPE MAKING MATERIALS:

To discover whether a material is suitable for rope making it
MUST HAVE 4 qualities:

It MUST BE reasonably long in the fibre. It MUST HAVE strength.
MUST BE pliable and MUST HAVE grip so that the fibres will bite
onto one another.

3 SIMPLE TESTS:

There are 3 simple tests to find if any material is suitable;
First pull on a length of the material to test it for strength.

The second test via strength is to twist it between the fingers
and roll the fibres together; if it will stand this and not snap
apart tie a thumb knot in it and gently tighten the knot.

If the material does not cut upon itself but allow the knot to be
pulled taut then it is a suitable for rope making providing that
the material will bite together and is not slippery or smooth.

You will find these qualities in all sorts of plants in ground
vines, in most of the longer grasses, in some of the water reeds
and rushes, in the inner barks of many trees and shrubs and in
the long hair or wool of many animals.

Some green freshly gathered materials may be stiff or unyielding.
When this is the case try passing it through hot flames for a few
moments.

The heat treatment should cause the sap to burst through some of
the cell structure and the material thus becomes pliable.

Fibres for rope making may be obtained from  many sources;
Surface roots of many shrubs and trees have strong fibrous bark.

Dead Inner bark of fallen branches of some species of trees and
in the new growth of many trees such as willows. In the fibrous
material of many water and swamp growing plants and rushes.

In many species of grass and in many weeds (pot?!?). In some sea
weeds. In fibrous material from leaves, stalks and trunks of many
palms & in many fibrous leaved plants such as the aloes*.

GATHERING AND PREPARATION OF MATERIALS:

In some plants there may be a high content of vegetable gum and
this can often be removed by soaking in water or by boiling or
again by drying the material and teasing it into thin strips.

Some of the materials have to be used green if any strength is
required. The material that should be green include the sedges*
water rushes* and should be cut NEVER pulled.

Cutting above ground is harvesting but pulling up the plant=
destruction. It is advisable no to denude an area entirely but to
work over a wide area location and harvest the most suitable
material leaving some for seeding and further growth.

For the gathering of sedges and grasses be particularly careful
therefore to harvest the material that is to cut what you require
above the ground level and take only from the biggest clumps.

By doing this you are not destroying the plant but rather aiding
the natural growth since you are truly pruning. It is easiest
method. Many of the strong leafed plants are deeply rooted and
you can not simply pull a leaf off them.

Palm fibre in tropical and sub tropical area is harvested. You
will find it at the junction of the leaf and the palm trunk or
lying on the ground beneath many palms.

Palm fibre is natural for making ropes and cord. Fibrous matter
from the inner bark of trees and shrubs is generally more easily
used if the plants is dead or half dead.  

Much of the natural gum will have dried up and when the material
is being teased prior to spinning the gum or resin will fall out
in fine powder.

There may be occasions when you will have to use the bark of
green shrubs but AVOID this unless it is ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL and
cut only a branch here and there.

NEVER cut a complete tree just because you want the bark for a
length of rope.

TO MAKE A ROPE BY SPINNING WITH THE FINGERS:

Use any material with long strong threads or fibres which you
have previously tested for strength and pliability.

Gather the fibres into loosely held strands of even thickness.
Each of these strands is twisted clockwise. The twist will hold
the fibres together.

The strand should be from 1/8 inch downwards for a rough and
ready rule, there should be 15 to 20 fibres to a strand.

2, 3 or 4 of these strands are later twisted together and this
twisting together or laying is done with an anti-clockwise twist
while at the same time the separate strands which have not yet
been laid up are twisted clockwise.

Each strand MUST BE of equal twist and thickness. The person who
twists the strands together is called the layer and he MUST see
that the twisting is even. That the strands are uniform and that
the tension on each strand is equal.

In laying he MUST watch that each of the strand is evenly laid up
that is that 1 strand does not twist around the other two. (A
thing you'll find happening the first time you try to lay up.)

When spinning fine cords for fishing lines, snares etc.
considerable care MUST BE taken to keep the strands uniform and
the lay even.

Fine thin cords of nor more than one thirty second of an inch
thickness can be spun with the fingers and they are capable of
taking a breaking strain of 20 to 30 lbs or more. Normally 2 or
more people are required to spin and lay up the strands for a
cord.

Yet many natives when spinning cord do so unaided, twisting the
material by running the flat of the hand along the thigh with the
fibrous material between hand and thigh and with the free hand
they feed in fibre for the next spin.

By this means one person can make long length of single strands.
This method of making cord or rope with the fingers is slow if
any considerable length of cord is required.

A more simple and easy way to rapidly make lengths of rope of 50
to 100 yards or more in length is to make a rope walk and set up
multiple spinners in the form of cranks. See photo * 259b.

In a rope walk, each feeder holds the material under one arm and
with one free hand feeds in into the strand which is being spun
by the crank.

The other hand lightly hold the fibres together till they are
spun. As the slightly spun strands are increased in length they
MUST BE supported on crossbars.

DON'T let them lie on the ground. You can spin strand of 20 to
100 yards before laying up. Do not spin the material in too
thickly. Thick strands do not help strength in any way rather
they tend to make a weaker rope.

SETTING A ROPEWALK:

When spinning ropes of 10 yards or longer it IS NECESSARY to set
crossbars every 2 or 3 yards to carry the strands as they are
spun.

If cross bars are not set up the strands or rope will sag to the
ground and some of the fibres will tangle up with grass, twigs or
dirt on the ground.

Also the twisting of the free end may either be stopped or
interrupted and the strand will be unevenly twisted.

The easiest way to set up crossbars for the rope walk is to drive
pairs of forked stakes into the ground about 6 feet apart and at
intervals of about 6 to 10 feet.

The crossbars MUST BE smooth and free from twigs and loose
portions of bark that might twist in with the spinning strands.

The crossbar "A" is supported by 2 uprights and pierced to take
the cranks "B". * These cranks can be made out of natural sticks,
morticed slab and peg or bent wire if available.

The connecting rod "C" enables one man to turn all cranks
clockwise simultaneously. Whatever turns your crank boy!

Crossbars supporting the strands as they are spun are shown "D".
A similar crank handle to "C" is supported on a fork stick at the
end of the rope walk.

This handle is turned in reverse (anti-clockwise) to the cranks
"C" to twist the connected strands together. These are laid up by
one or more of the feeders.

ALWAYS MAKE IT A RULE TO TURN THE FIRST STRAND CLOCKWISE; then
the laying up of the strands will be done anti-clockwise and the
next laying will again be clockwise. Proof that your rope is well
made will be if the individual fibres lie lengthways along the
rope.

In the process of laying up the strands, the actual twisting
together or laying will take some of the original twist out of
the strands which has not yet been laid. Therefore it IS
NECESSARY to keep twisting the strands whilst laying together.

When making a rope too long to be spun and laid in one piece, a
section is laid up and coiled on the ground at the end of the
rope walk farthest from the cranks.

Strands for a second length are spun and these strands are
married or spliced into the strands of the first section and then
the laying up of the second section continues the rope.

The actual marrying of the strands is done only in the last lay
which when completed makes the rope. The ends where the strands
are married should be staggered in different places.

By this means rope can be made and extended in section of great
length. After your complete length of rope is laid up.

Pass it through fire to burn off the loose ends and fibres. This
will make your rope smooth and most professional looking.

LAYING THE STRANDS: (Stranded on a sea-shore?)

The strands lie on the crossbars as they are spun. When the
strands have been spun to the required length which should be
more than about a 100 feet they are joined together by being held
at the far end. They are then ready for laying together.

The turner who is facing the cranks twists the ends together
anti-clockwise at the same time keeping his full weight on the
rope end which is being laid up.

The layer advances placing the strands side by side as they turn.
Laying up is very fast when the layer is experienced. He quickly
gets the feeling of the work.

It is important to learn to feed the material evenly, and lay up
slowly thereby getting a smooth even rope.

Do not try to rush the rope making. If you do you will have
uneven, badly spun strands and ugly lays and poor rope.

Speed in rope making only comes with practice. At first it will
take a team of 3 or 4 up to 2 or more hours to make a 50 yard
length of rope of 3 lays, each of 3 strands.

That is 9 strands for a rope with a finished diameter of about 1
inch. With practice the same 3 or 4 people will make the same
rope in 15 to 20 minutes.

These times do not include the time for gathering the material.
In feeding the free ends of the strands twist in the loose
material fed in by the feeder.

The feeder MUST move backwards at a speed governed by the rate at
which he feeds. As the feeder moves backwards he MUST keep a
slight tension on the strands.

MAKING ROPE WITH A SINGLE SPINNER:

2 people can make a rope using a single crank. A portion of the
material is fastened to the eye of the crank as with the multiple
crank and the feeder holding the free end of this trend against
the bundle of loose material under his arm feeds in,  walking
backwards.

Supporting crossbars as used in ropewalk are required when a
length of more than 20 or 30 feet is being spun.

FEEDING:

If the feeder is holding material under his left arm, his right
hand is engaged in continuously pulling material forward to his
left hand which feeds it into the turning strand.

These actions done together as the feeder walks backwards govern
the thickness of the strands.

( His left hand lightly closed over the loose turning material
MUST feel the fibres bitting or twisting together.)

THICKNESS OF STRANDS:

Equal thickness for each of the strands throughout their length &
equal twist are important. The thickness should not be greater
than IS NECESSARY with the material being used.

For grass rope the strand should not be more than 1/4 inch in
diameter for coarse bark or palm not more than 1/8 to 3/16 and
for fine bark or hair or sisal fibre not more than 1/8 inch.

For cords the strand should be N