Krishnanattam - An Overview

A. Harindranath and A. Purushothaman

Among the performances, Krishnanattam is auspicious.
If Ramanattam starts, defects will follow definitely
- [Kuncan Nambiar, Krishnalila (eighteenth century)]

Preamble

Krishnanattam or Krishnattam is a temple art, now performed at Guruvayur Temple as a votive offering by a troupe under the management of Guruvayur Devaswom (Guruvayur- 680 101, Thrissur Dt, Kerala, India). The performance is based on Krishnagiti, a text of slokas and padams in Sanskrit, composed by Manavedan, the Zamorin King of Calicut, in 1654. Krishna's story as described in detail in the Tenth and Eleventh Cantos of Srimad Bhagavata, Mahabharata and Harivamsa is presented as song, dance and acting in a cycle of eight plays in eight days. The plays are Avataram, Kaliyamardanam, Rasakrida, Kamsavadham, Swayamvaram, Banayuddham, Vividavadham and Swargarohanam (Akaraka Swabhaviswa is the mnemonic to remember the names in order).

An excellent critical article concerning the various aspects of this temple art and its appreciation is Preparing for Krishna by Dr. Rustom Bharucha [1]. Krishnanattam, the Malayalam commentary to Krishnagiti by Prof. P.C. Vasudevan Elayath [2] includes an excellent introduction Krishnattapravesakam. Krishnattam, a book by Dr. Martha Bush Ashton Sikora and Robert P. Sikora [3] summarises the historical development, training of the artists, description of performances, views of the artists as well as other aspects of Krishnanattam.

Preliminary Rituals

Kelikottu is the first event of the play. Kelikottu is carried out by playing drums (maddalams), gong (chengala) and cymbals (elathalam) in the evening during daytime at the East Nada of the temple. This is to inform the people in the neighborhood about the performance scheduled in the night. A lamp is lit in the makeup room at dusk. Actors (all male) put on their make up, sitting on the floor, around another lamp lighted from the lamp in the makeup room.

As soon as the daily rituals of the temple are completed and the Sanctum Sanctorum is closed for the day (about 10 to 10.30 p.m.), the Kali Vilakku (An Oil Lamp of the Play) is kept in front of performance space in the Temple on the North side of the Sanctum Sanctorum. The Kali Vilakku is lit by a Brahmin from the lamp in the make up room. Stage hands place the musical instruments (drums, gong and cymbals) on the ground behind the Kali Vilakku. The maddalam players touch them respectfully, lift them up, play a couple of beats on both sides to invoke sabdabrahma and hang the instruments around their waists. Then Kelikkayyu is performed using maddalams, chengala and elathalam.

After kelikkayyu, a colourful rectangular Thirassila (curtain) is held behind Kali Vilakku by two stage hands. Then Todayam is performed behind the screen by the women characters appearing on that day's play. Todayam is a prayer dance performed by the dancers accompanied by music to invoke the blessings of the Lord. Todayam is not for the spectators. For Todayam, the lines starting with Narayana Narakantaka Narakaparayana in the fifth padam of the play Kaliyamardanam are sung.

All performances begin with the recital of the sloka starting with Souvarnatbhuta as the mangala sloka (Auspicious Beginning).

After Todayam it is time for Purappatu, a piece of pure dance choreography. Either Krishna or Balarama or both, or along with other characters, dance with gestures of hand and face and special steps. In Avataram, the first scene (Brahma and Bhumi Devi) is considered as Purappatu. In other plays, the scene in which either Krishna or Balarama or both appear first on stage is considered as Purappatu. In Kamsavadham, Purappatu is in the middle of the play. In Vividavadham, there are two Purappatu, first in the beginning (Balarama and wives) and the other after some time (Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna). In Swargarohanam, there is no Purappatu.

Upananda, Balarama, Krishna, Nandagopa Purappatu in Kaliyamardanam

Garuda, Satyabhama, Krishna Purappatu in Banayuddham

The characters performing Purappatu for the plays are as follows :

Play - Characters in Purappatu
Avataram - Brahma and Bhumi Devi
Kaliyamardanam - Krishna, Balarama, Nanda and Upananda
Rasakrida - Krishna
Kamsavadham - Krishna and Balarama
Swayamvaram - Krishna and Balarama
Banayuddham - Krishna, Satyabhama and Garuda
Vividavadham - 1. Balarama and wives 2. Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna
Swargarohanam - Nil

Concluding Rituals

Except Swargarohanam, all plays end with Dhanasi. The characters in the last scene of the play perform Dhanasi by dancing in a particular way accompanied by singing the lines starting with Narayana Narakantaka Narakaparayana in the fifth padam of the play Kaliyamardanam. The characters performing Dhanasi for the plays are as follows :

Play - Characters performing Dhanasi
Avataram - Krishna and Yasoda
Kaliyamardanam - Krishna and Nandagopa
Rasakrida - Krishna and Balarama
Kamsavadham - Krishna and Balarama
Swayamvaram - Krishna and Satyabhama
Banayuddham - Krishna, Pradyumna and Aniruddha
Vividhavadham - Krishna and Rukmini
Swargarohanam - Nil

As the characters exit from the stage, a sloka is sung as mangalam (Auspicious End)

Play - Mangala Sloka
Avataram - Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram)
Kaliyamardanam - Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram)
Rasakrida - Daivereva (sloka in Rasakrida)
Kamsavadham - Sandrananda (sloka in Rasakrida)
Swayamvaram - Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram)
Banayuddham - Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram)
Vividavadham - Sandrananda (sloka in Rasakrida)
Swargarohanam - Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram)

The play is concluded by playing a couple of beats on the maddalam just as in the beginning.

Some Features about the Performance

The actors dance and act behind the Kali Vilakku while the singers sing standing behind - this is the general nature of the play. The lead singer sings, playing the gong, the second singer repeats playing the cymbals. Accompanied by suddha maddalam, toppi maddalam and edakka, both singers sing the slokas and padams of Krishnagiti one by one, once. Some padams and slokas are sung more than once. For example, slokas starting with Atha tou datha tou, Ghora tara kopa bhara (Swayamvaram), Dharani Ramaniya (Vividavadham). All the slokas and padams of Krishnagiti are not used for the play. By tradition many are omitted.

There was a tradition of actors singing along with the singers at three places [4]: One in Kaliyamardanam, pallavam of padam 5, jivitanayaka and two in Rasakrida, pallavam of padam 3, jaya jaya ramaramana and six slokas starting with Padou tou, Vaktram netra, Cillinam jagata, Vani manasaharini, Lavanyam tadavarnaniyam and Sa strinam [2]. These days, the actors do not sing.

In the performance space, between the singers and Kali Vilakku, the actors dance and act wearing multicoloured costumes. Dancing and acting in general, do not confirm to the 'text' being sung, but are according to ragas (tunes) and talas (beats).

In Krishnanattam, five types of facial make ups, Paccha (Green), Pazhuppu (Orange), Kathi (Knife), Minukku and Kari (Black) and masks are used. A Paccha facial make up is used for Krishna, Vasudeva, Kamsa, Nandgopa, Uddhava, Muchukunda, Dandavakthra, Rukmi, Arjuna, Jarasandha etc. A Kathi facial make up is used for bad but kingly characters (Sankhachuda in Rasakrida, Sisupala in Vividavadham, Bana in Banayudhham). Incidentally, in Swayamvaram, Sisupala appears as Paccha. Pazhuppu is for Balarama, Siva and Bhima. Minukku is for all women, Narada, Sandipani, Yavana, Kucela, etc. There is no facial make up for Toddy Tapper and Kucela (Vividavadham). For Yasoda, Bhumi Devi, Radha and Satyabhama green colour is applied on the face and a chutti is provided. In earlier days, Devaki and Rukmini used to have chutti on their face. These were converted to Minukku during the time of A.C.G. Raja. Kari is for Putana (mask - Avataram) and the hunter Jara (Swargarohanam).

In some plays, the same actor appears in different roles. For example, in Swayamvaram the same actor appears as Sandipani and Rukmini. The roles of Dhantavakthra and Satrajit are played by the same actor. The roles of Uddhava, Muchukunda, Sisupala and Rukmi are also played by one actor.

Masks in Krishnanattam

Brahma	Dharmaraja (Yama)	Jambavan
Putana	Narakasura	Vivida

Murasura

Ghantakarnas

Colourful masks are used in Krishnanattam.

Play - Masks
Avataram- Brahma (4 face), Putana (Black)
Kaliyamardanam - Bakasura (Bird), Brahma (4 face)
Rasakrida - No mask
Kamsavadham - No mask
Swayamvaram - Dharmaraja (Green), Jambavan (white monkey face)
Banayudham - Murasura (5 faces, all different), Narakasura (Red Beard), Ghantakarna (two different black), Sivabhutas (Black)
Vividavadham - Vivida (Black)
Swargarohanam- Brahma (4 face)

Props

Besides bow, arrow, mace, sword, shield, lance and chakra, Krishnanattam uses many items and props for the performance. To beat the child Krishna, Yasoda takes a real stick! Dolls for new born babies - blue for boy (Avataram and Swargarohanam) and orange for girl (Avataram), Kaliya in Kaliyamardanam (doll of snake), Anantha of Swargarohanam (doll of seven hooded snake), branch of a real tree (Kaliyamardanam, Vividavadham and Swargarohanam) are some of the props. Brahma, Vishnu, Siva and Bana have artificial arms. Bakasura and Garuda have painted wings. Jambavan, tired by fighting with Krishna, uses a walking stick! Kucela carries a palm leaf umbrella and walks using a walking stick. In Vividavadham, Yudhishtira washes the feet of Krishna actually with water! Later, Krishna washes the feet of Kucela. In Swayamvaram, Jambavan and Krishna fight using branches of trees. In Vividhavadham, Vivida and Balarama does the same. In Vividavadham, the toddy tapper brings a pot of toddy and packet of pickles to Balarama. Krishna gives a signal to Bhima to kill Jarasandha by tearing a leaf in two halves. In Swargarohanam, while Krishna sits partly hidden by the Thirassila below a tree, the hunter Jara shoots an arrow at Krishna's feet.

Tableaus

In Krishnanattam, there are some beautiful tableau. As the play Banayuddham begins with lowering of hand held curtain halfway, a three level tableau is revealed, showing Garuda with green face, red beaks and wings on the ground level. Above Garuda, on middle level Satyabhama is seen with green face bordered with chutti. On top level, Krishna is seen holding a conch. Alavattoms are held at the back of Krishna's head. This spectacular scene depicts Krishna riding on Garuda with Satyabhama on his way to Pragjyotishapura, the city of Narakasura.

Kailasa in Banayuddham is another beautiful scene. Krishna goes to Kailasa to meet Siva. As thehand held curtain is removed, Siva, Parvati, Subrahmanya and Ganapathi are seen. Two tiny Sivabhootas sit on the floor.

In Swargarohanam, there are two breathtaking scenes of Vaikunta. In the first scene, Krishna and Arjuna visit Vaikunta. Vishnu stands with the seven hooded Anantha hovering over his crown, along with Sri Devi, Bhumi Devi, Siva, Brahma and Narada.

In the last scene of Swargarohanam, Vishnu reclines on Anantha. Sri Devi, Bhumi Devi, Brahma and Narada are present. Siva and Garuda are on either side. Daruka sits on one side and a parshada on the other. The singers and drummers sit on either side. Several oil lamps are lit in front. Fumes from the burning incense rise up creating an ethereal atmosphere.

Kailasa in Banayuddham

Vaikunta in Swargarohanam

Special Dance Compositions

Mullappoo Chuttal (Adorning garland of Jasmine) is the most famous special dance composition of Krishnanattam [2]. This is performed in Avataram by Krishna, Balarama, Yasoda and Rohini and gopis and in Rasakrida by Krishna and gopis. Kutti Etuttu Attam (dance holding the baby), twice in Avataram, before and after Putanamoksham and Kuvalayapidam dance in Kamsavadham are other dance forms special to Krishnanattam [5].

Kutti Etuttu Attam Avataram

Mullappoo chuttal Rasakrida

Use of Thirassila (Curtain)

The half curtain is integral to the stage mechanism employed by Krishnanattam in its attempt to represent Krishna's divinity [5,6]. In Krishnanattam, the curtain has specific and subtle functions that are often imbued with metaphysical significance. In Avataram, when Gods praise Krishna, while still in Devaki's womb, the stage hands hold the curtain at a lower level hiding the actor's legs, making them manifest figures. Religious traditions hold that the gods, even when they reveal themselves do not touch the earth with their feet. In Kaliyamardanam. Curtain is held at a lower level behind Krishna, suggesting the representation of the water surface and facilitating the occasional introduction of Kaliya. In the scene where Krishna steals the clothes of Gopis, the curtain is held at a lower level suggesting the Gopis standing in water upto their waist.

The curtain also facilitates impressive Thiranottam for Kamsa, Sankhachuda, Murasura and Narakasura.

In Swargarohanam, in the scene of Balarama's departure to heaven, the curtain is held half way suggesting two distinct spaces, earth and heaven. When Jara the hunter approaches Krishna, the curtain is held full to divide the stage in two parts. The front side depicts the forest where Jara wanders and the back side where Krishna sits under a tree. After Jara shoots an arrow hitting Krishna's toes projecting below the curtain, the curtain is lowered revealing Krishna in sitting posture.

Music

Krishnagiti has 62 padas and 93 padyagitams (musical verses) with specific raga and tala. In addition, there are 321 verses and 2 Dhandakas to be rendered in ragas [2, 5].

Play - Slokas - Padams - Padyagitams
Avataram - 64 - 14 - Nil
Kaliyamardanam - 49 - 10 - 4
Rasakrida - 57 * - 10 - 27
Kamsavadham - 46 - 7 - 17
Swayamvaram - 30 - 5 - 15
Banayuddham - 28 - 7 - 7
Vividavadham - 23 - 3 - 15
Swargarohanam - 24 - 6 - 8
Total - 321 - 62 - 93
* two Dhandakas

Krishnagiti is the earliest (1654) composition in Kerala in which the composer prescribed both raga and tala. Venkatamakhin formulated the scheme of 72 melakartas around the same time. Thus Krishnagiti predates the trinity of Karnatic music [5, 7]. Manavedan is a noteworthy figure among the pre-Swati Tirunal composers of classical music. Manavedan brought several unfamiliar ragas like Kanakurunji, Indisa, Pantayiri and Kedarapantu into vogue in Krishnagiti [8]. L.S. Rajagopalan in his essay Krishnattathile Pattu [7] notes that about 30 padams are now sung in ragas different from those specified by Manavedan. Some of the ragas such as Indisa, Kedarapantu, Pantayiri, Samantamalahari and Ghandara Malavi are lost now.

The ragas used now in Krishnanattam are Ahari, Anantabhairavi, Kanakurunji, Kambhoji, Kalyani, Kedaragowlam, Ghantaram, Todi, Devagandaram, Dwijavanthi, Natta, Nattakurunji, Navarasam, Neelambari, Pantuvarali, Pati, Puraneer, Bilahari, Bowli, Bhoopalam, Bhairavi, Madhyamavati, Mayamalavagowlam, Mukhari, Mohanam, Ragamalika, Yadukula Kambhoji, Varali, Sankarabharanam, Saveri, Sarangam and Saurashtram.

The talas used now in Krishnanattam are Adanta, Chempa, Chempata and Panchari.

The ragas and talas used now for each padam and padyagitam are listed in [9] separately.

The mode of singing in Krishnanattam adheres to the sopana style practiced in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Kavalam Narayana Panikkar [10] notes that two line structure of Tyani in Kottipadi Seva is basic to the singing in Krishnanattam and Kathakali. Hand and facial gestures are most important in Kathakali for acting the meaning of the words of the text in detail. Thus each line has to be sung by the singer several times to allow the actor to express the meaning through Bhavibhinaya. Since this kind of acting is almost absent in Krishnanattam, the text needs to be sung only once by the lead singer and then repeated by the second singer. Devotion is the essence of Krishnanattam and the Sopana style suits it best.

Krishnanattam and Kathakali [2, 10]

The Krishnanattam performance is based on the text of Krishnagiti by Manavedan in Sanskrit. The Kathakali performance texts are Attakathas, based on stories in Itihasas, Puranas and others in Manipravalam, a mixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam.

In Krishnanattam, maddalam, chengala, elathalam and idakka are used. Chenda is not used in Krishnanattam. Chenda is important in Kathakali.

In Krishnanattam, mostly, the beginning of the story is Purappatu. In Kathakali, for Purappatu, it is not essential to have the character in the beginning of the play, any character will do. In Kathakali, there is Melappadam after Purappatu. In Krishnanattam, there is no Melappadam [2].

In Krishnanattam, facial make ups of Paccha, Pazhuppu, Kathi, Minukku and Kari (Black) are used. Besides these, Kathakali has the additional facial make ups of Thati (Beard) and Ninam (Bloody appearance).

In Krishnanattam, a thin chutti is used for the women characters, Yashoda, Radha and Satyabhama. In Kathakali, chutti is not used for women characters at all.

Extensive use of masks is a special feature of Krishnanattam (Brahma, Putana, Yama, Jambavan, etc.).

The singers sing standing behind, the actors act and dance; this is the nature of Krishnanattam and Kathakali. The actors do not sing or speak in both.

In Krishnanattam, the principal singer sings a line once and the second singer repeats it. There are only few occasions of acting of the word meaning using hand signs and expressions in Krishnanattam. (In Avataram, Kamsa orders his men to search out and kill the new born babies (Elakiyattam of Kamsa), in Swayamvaram, Yavana and Rukmi ridicule and insult Krishna, in Vividavadham, Sisupala mocks at Krishna and in Swargarohanam, Krishna gives advice to Uddhava [2]). Hence repeating each line once is sufficient. The singing is in the Sopana style, where devotion is prominent [10].

Krishnanattam is a dance play while the detailed and varied performance using hand signs and Satvika acting is a unique feature of Kathakali. In Kathakali, the lines are sung repeatedly. For the integral presentation of Angika and Satvika acting, each step of the line should be sung separately by the principal singer and second singer and eulogized [10].

Krishnanattam is performed only by a single troupe (managed by Guruvayur Devaswom). There are several troupes performing Kathakali (Kalamandalam, Kottakkal etc.).

Performance: Place, Time and Dates

In Guruvayur Temple, the plays are performed as votive offerings of devotees. The charges for one play is Rs. 1500 (in 2005). A play can be booked one year in advance. As and when requested, Krishnanattam is performed outside the Guruvayur Temple as well. The charges are extra for such plays. Details can be obtained from Administrator, Guruvayur Devaswom, Guruvayur - 680 101.

Usually there is no play on Tuesdays. But during Aranagetam, when all 8 plays are performed in the temple, plays are performed on Tuesday also. After performing Swargarohanam on the eighth day, Avataram is performed on the ninth day. May 31st is the last day of performance in the Temple. June is the month of vacation. During July-August, 41 days are the training period for the players. Plays are performed in the temple from 1st September onwards.

Traditionally, Banayuddham is performed on Sivaratri at the Siva temple of Mammiyur, near Guruvayur. Avataram is performed on Ashtamirohini, at the Melputtur Auditorium of East Nada, Guruvayur. On Krishnagiti day, one play is performed at the Auditorium.

Manavedan - a Biographical Note [2,11,12]

Manavedan, born in A.D. 1585 has a prominent place among the Sanskrit poets of Kerala. He was educated in Poetics, Grammar and Logics by Anayatt Krishna Pisharoti.

Manavedan composed two texts: Purva Bharatha Campu (1644) and Krishnagiti (1654). During the composing of Purva Bharatha Campu, Manavedan's uncle, Sakthan Manavikraman was the Zamorin King. On the death of Sakthan Manavikraman, another Manavikraman became the Zamorin King. When this King expired (28th August 1655), Manavedan became the Zamorin King. At this time, the King of Cochin was planning to attack Zamorin. Manavedan prepared for war with the Cochin King, but did not live to lead the war. He expired at Trichur on 15th February 1658. He was cremated at the Zamorin Palace at Guruvayur. (This palace, supposed to be built by Manavedan [13], was demolished in 1977. A monument for Manavedan was built (16th November 1987) at this place by Guruvayur Devaswom).

Manavedan refers to his teacher Anayatt Krishna Pisharoti, uncle Sakthan Manavikraman and the deities of Zamorin family in Purva Bharatha Campu (slokas 1 to 16, quoted by Ulloor [12]). Purva Bharatha Campu, a work of 12 sthabhakas is composed following the model of Bharatha Campu by Anantha Bhatta. Bharatha Campu deals with the story of Mahabharata starting from King Pandu and ending with the reign of King Yudhishtira. In Purva Bharatha Campu, (published by Manuscripts Library, Kerala University, 1963) Manavedan deals with the Mahabharata story from the beginning upto the birth of Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura. A commentary to Purva Bharatha Campu, Krishneeyam, was composed apparently by Anayatt Krishna Pisharoti [12].

Manavedan mentions his teacher (2nd sloka) and uncle (4th sloka) in Krishnagiti as well. In composition and style, Manavedan has followed the models given by Gita Govindam (Jayadeva), Narayaneeyam (Melputtur), Srikrishnavilasam (Sukumara), Srikrishnavijayam (Sankara), Balabharata (Agasthya Bhatta) and Bharata Campu (Anantha Bhatta).

To understand the significance of the multifold contributions of Manavedan to literature, music and art, it is necessary to have a broad perspective of the Indian cultural background [2, 14], landmarks in early Malayalam Literature and the major historical events during this period [15].

Indian Cultural Background [2, 14]

The general cultural background of this period is given by Prof. P.C. Vasudevan Elayath in krishnanattapravesakam [2]: In 16th and 17th century A.D., as a result of Vaishnava religious renaissance, many forms of performing arts originated and propagated in different parts of India. Especially, the royal families of Mathura, Nepal and Assam just like the Zamorins of Calicut took great care in the patronage of performing arts related to Vaishnava cult. Many artists created new art forms (as Sanakaradeva in Assam). Among these, a Sanskrit poem Krishna Lila Tarangini by Sri Narayana Tirtha in Tamil Nadu deserves special attention. It is said that Krishna Lila Tarangini used to be performed on Krishnashtami day. Krishna Lila Tarangini has many similarities to Krishnanattam. Both originated around the same time. Thus Krishnanattam is one among many art forms which originated as a result of a strong inner flow of cultural renaissance all over India.

An outline of the cultural background of this era is indicated by N.V. Krishna Varrier [14] as well. A popular tradition of performing arts was existing in various parts of India. Gitagovindam (Ashtapadi) composed in Orissa during 12th century A.D was performed in various parts. Later, this tradition perished in the north due to attacks from outside. During the 15th and 16th century, in Krishna Chaitanya's time, the performing arts were renovated in Bengal. During 16th Century, Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva popularized the Vaishnava tradition of performing arts in Assam. Melputtur Narayana Bhattathiri indicates in Prakriyasarvaswam (krishnAvalOkOtsava
krIdAkauthukimAnasam) and in a poem (karmaughOcchanda mArddangika layavasagAn vAsanAgAnasaktAn) the possibility of existence of some kind of art forms involving music and dance based on Krishna's story in Kerala. Achutappa Naikan who ruled Thanchavoor during A.D. 1561 to A.D 1614 brought Brahmins who are experts in acting and singing from Andhra to Thanchavoor. Even now they perform the dance drama Bhagavata Mela. Raghunatha Naikan and Vijayaraghava Naikan, the descendants of Achutappa Naikan, sponsored Bharatanatyam in Tamil Nadu. The Nawab of Golkonda, Abul Hasan Kutub Shah (A.D 1672 - A.D.1687) donated a village to the Brahmin dancers of Kuchipudi. There are indications that these brahmins had performed the dance drama Kelika before the ruler of Vijayanagaram in A.D.1502. The Sultan of Bamini Malik Ibrahim encouraged the performance of the Telugu dance drama 'Sugriva Vijayam' in A.D. 1558. In Karnataka, 'Virataparva', the first Yakshagana play was composed in A.D.1564.

Landmarks in early Malayalam Literature [15]

Malayalam began to develop as an independent literary language around the same time that the Malayalam Era (Kolla varsham) began (A.D. 825). Tolan (9th Century) wrote Attaprakaram for Kutiyattam. Between 9th and 12th centuries, manipravalam (mixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam) dominated the scene. Niranam Poets and Cherusseri (author of Krishnagatha) belong to 15th century. Ezhuttacchan, Puntanam (1547-1640) who wrote exclusively in Malayalam and Melputtur Narayana Bhattathiri (1560-1646) who wrote exclusively in Sanskrit belonged to sixteenth and seventeenth century. Melputtur composed Narayaneeyam (1588) when Manavedan was just three years old. It is likely that the grammatical text Prakriya Sarvaswam by Melputtur influenced Manavedan to a large extent [2,12]. Manavedan completed Purva Bharata Campu in 1644 and Krishnagiti in 1654.

Major Historical Events during this Period [15]

Under the rule of Zamorin, Calicut became a strong political entity in the 14th century. Manavedan's famous ancestor, King Manavikraman ruled as Zamorin in the 15th century (1466 to 1471). The famous patinettara kavikal (eighteen and half poets) belonged to his royal court. Punam Namboodiri who wrote in Malayalam was the arakkavi (half poet)! Famous among the eighteen are Uddanda Sastrikal, Kakkasseri Damodara Bhattathiri (author of Vasumathi Manavikramam), Chennas Narayanan Namboodiri (author of Tantra Samucchayam) and the two Payyur Bhattathiris.

Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in 1498. Beginning of 15th century, Zamorin became the leading force against Portugese expansion in Kerala. Udayamperur Sunnahadoss in 1599. Dutch East India Company signed an agreement with Samuthiri on 11th November 1604. Kunankurisu revolt in 1653. Manavedan completed Krishnagiti in 1654. Dutch captured Kollam in 1658 and Kochi in 1663.

Legends [2, 12, 13, 16, 17]

According to a legend, Manavedan requested Vilwamangalam Swamiyar to enable him to see Krishna in person. Swamiyar facilitated this request and Manavedan was able to see Krishna playing under an elanji tree. When Manavedan tried to embrace Krishna, the Lord disappeared leaving behind a peacock feather in Manavedan's hand. An idol of Krishna was made using the wood of the elanji tree. (The elanji tree stood at the place where now, the Kuttambalam stands, on the south-east side of the sanctum sanctorum of the Guruvayur Temple). According to the advice of Vilwamangalam, Manavedan composed Krishnagiti sitting before the idol. The peacock feather was incorporated in the headgear of Krishna. The headgear was found to suit the heads of all actors performing as Krishna. The actor also used to get 'possessed' on wearing this headgear. It is said that this headgear perished during the attack of the Kodungallur fort by the Dutch. Another version is that the headgear perished in the fire which engulfed the Zamorin Palace in 1766 [3].

In 1766, the Zamorin, attacked by Haider, burned himself and the fort palace at Calicut. It is said that all wooden ornaments, crowns and masks used for Krishnanattam were destroyed in the fire [3].

(Dr. Sikora [3] states that a Bronze image of Krishna is available at the Zamorin Temple of Tali, Calicut. The crown, ear ornaments and decorations such as the circular and floral patterns on the breast plate and hurdle of this image resembles those worn by Krishna in contemporary Krishnanattam. However, Dr. Sikora notes two major differences: (1) Absence of the figure's costume of skirt, side panels and long shawl with mirrors at each end. Instead of these, the figure's costume is a simple dhoti. (2) Absence of chutti on the figure's face).

There is a story [13, 16] about the troupe performing Krishnanattam at Tripunithura. The King of Cochin ordered the troupe to play Kamsavadham. An elephant was brought to the stage to enact the role of Kuvalayapeedam. The actor performing as Krishna killed the elephant and went after the King. The King managed to escape somehow. It is said that after this incident, Krishnanattam was never performed South of Guruvayur.

The History of Krishnanattam

Dr. Sikora [3] divides Krishnanattam history into four eras: The time of Zamorins, The time of Transition, The time at Guruvayur Temple under the Management of A.C.G. Raja and recent times.

Dr. Sikora notes that evidence is available for the existence of Krishnanattam in some form at least by 1694 and it included dance by 1780. No details are available on the creators of this art, no audiovisual concept of its first production and no details of how the art developed.

Under the Management of A.C.G. Raja, the troupe, for the first time performed outside Kerala and abroad (Europe and U.S.A.).

During the third era, many changes took place in various aspects of Krishnanattam. These are documented in the book by Dr. Sikora [3].

A documentary film was made on Krishnanattam by Adoor Gopalakrishnan. Mankada Ravi Varma was the cinematographer.

P.C.C. Elayath took charge as the Superintendent of Kalanilayam in 1983. He introduced a microphone for the singers.

An excellent portrayal of Krishnanattam then and now is provided by retired Krishnanattam Asan, K. Velayudhan Nair [18].

Krishnagiti Day

Every year, 30th of Malayalam month Thulam is celebrated as Krishnagiti day at Guruvayur. This is the day on which Manavedan completed composing Krishnagiti as indicated by the words Grahya Sththirgathakai in the last sloka of Swargarohanam. More information is provided at http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/krishdinam.html .

Acknowledgements

We thank our Malayalam teacher P. Radhakrishnan Nair and retired Krishnanattam Asan P. Parameswara Panikkar for checking and suggesting changes in the preliminary Malayalam version of the sections of this article from 'Preamble' to 'Tableaus'. We also thank Dr. Rustom Bharucha, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar and retired Krishnanattam Asan K. Velayudhan Nair for allowing us to translate their excellent articles on Krishnanattam, L.S. Rajagopalan and P.K.S. Raja (Zamorin of Calicut) for allowing us to utilise their writings on Krishnanattam and Krishnanattam Musician M. Vasudevan Namboodiri for providing a list of the ragas and talas used for the padams and padyagitams of Krishnagiti today. We also thank Dr. P.N. Ganesh for many hepful communications.

References

[1] Preparing for Krishna, Chapter 10, Theatre and the World - Performance and the Politics of Culture, Dr. Rustom Bharucha, Routledge, London (1993). This essay was first published in the Journal of Arts and Ideas, November 16, (1988). Malayalam translation, Krishnanu Venti Orungal, is available at http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/orungal.pdf
The translation appeared in Bhasha Sahiti, 21, 1, pages 41 to 82, (Jan-March 1997), Journal of Research and Literature Studies in Malayalam, Dept. of Malayalam, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, published Sept. 2005.

[2] Krishnanattam, commentary in Malayalam, Prof. P.C. Vasudevan Elayath, Guruvayur Devaswom, Guruvayur, Kerala, India (1985).

[3] Krishnattam, Dr. Martha Bush Ashton Sikora and Robert P. Sikora, Oxford and IBH Publishing Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, India (1993).

[4] Private Communications with Asan K. Velayudhan Nair, Asan P. Parameswara Panikkar, Asan Damodaran Nair and Asan T.P. Narayana Pisharoti.

[5] Review of Krishnagiti of Manavedan, (edited and translated by C.R.Swaminathan and Sudha Gopalakrisnan, Motilal Banarsidass (1997)) by L.S. Rajagopalan, Sangeet Natak Nos. 131-132, pp.44-50, (1999).

[6] Krishnanattam (Krishnagiti), Sri Manavedan Raja, Prose Translation in Malayalam by P.C.V. Raja, published by Sri Manavedan 4th Birth Centenary Celebration Committee, Guruvayur. Distributed by National Book Stall, Kottayam (1987).

[7] Krishnattathile Pattu, L.S. Rajagopalan, Essay presented in the seminar held in Guruvayur on Krishnagiti day, 13th November 1989; Bhaktapriya, Guruvayur Devaswom, pp. 19-20, November 2001; Keli, Sangeet Natak Academy, Thrissur, August- September 2004. Available on-line at
http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/articles/lsr1.pdf
English translation, Songs in Krishnattam available on-line at http://www.geocities.com/prasanna_avaroth/krish/lsr-song.pdf

[8] Composers of Kerala, Dr. S. Venkitasubramonia Iyer, Journal of Music Academy, Madras, Vol LV, (1984). Available on-line at
http://www.sruti.com/sepoct2k/sepspot.htm

[9] Krishnattathile Padangal, Ragavum Talavum, compiled by M. Vasudevan Namboodiri, 2004. Available on-line at
http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/articles/kml.pdf

[10] Bhaktiyute Kala, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar, Bhaktapriya, Guruvayur Devaswom, pp. 26-28, November 2001. English Translation available on-line at
http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/aod.html

[11] The Zamorins of Calicut, K.V. Krishna Iyer, quoted in [3].

[12] Kerala Sahitya Charitram, Chapter 33, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer.

[13] On Krishnanattam - P.K.S. Raja, Zamorin of Calicut. Available on-line at
http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/articles/ pksraja1.html

[14] Preface, N.V. Krishna Varrier, Kottayathu Thampurante Attakkathakal, commentary by Desamangalattu Rama Varrier, National Book Stall, Kottayam, (1976).

[15] Manavedan, A Historical Perspective - web article available at
http://www.geocities.com/purushothaman_avaroth/krish/manaveda.html

[16] Mohana Tejas Athava Sri Guruvayurappan, Thekkuuttu Madhathil Sankaran Nambidi, (1955).

[17] Krishnagiti Mahatmyam - (poem in Sanskrit) by P.C. Ettanunni Raja. Available on-line at
http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/mahatmyam.pdf

[18] Krishnanattam - Then and Now, K. Velayudhan Nair, published in Bhaktapriya (Publication of Guruvayur Devaswom) - November 2001. English translation available on-line at
http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000/krishna/ktn_kvn.html

Earlier version dated February, 2005. Modified August, 2005, January 11, 2006.