Reforms Ďĺňđŕ I: discussions in domestic historical science and public thought

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State committee of Russian Federation on higher education

The ministry of science, higher school and technical policy Đ.Ô.

The Moscow awards Ëĺíčíŕ, award of October Revolution
And award of a Labour Red banner
State technical university by him(it). Í. Ý. Áŕóěŕíŕ

Faculty of a History

The abstract

Has fulfilled: the student ä/î,

ĐĘ9-12

The Moiseyev And. Ŕ.

Has accepted: Ôĺäîđîâ To. Â.

1. Introduction

č÷íîńňü Ďĺňđŕ I (1672-1725) under the right concerns to ďëĺ˙äĺ of the bright historical figures of a world(global) scale. It is a lot of researches and pieces of art is devoted to conversions connected to his(its) name. The historians and writers differently, occasionally directly opposite, estimated the person Ďĺňđŕ I and value of his(its) reforms.

Already contemporaries Ďĺňđŕ I were divided into two camps: the supporters and opponents of his(its) conversions. The dispute proceeded and later. In XVIII in. M. In. Ëîěîíîńîâ glorified Ďĺňđŕ, was admired by his(its) activity. And little bit later historian Ęŕđŕěçčí accused Ďĺňđŕ of change “ is true Russian ” to the beginnings of life, and his(its) reforms has named “ as a brilliant error ”.

In the end XVII in., when on Russian ďđĺńňîëĺ there was a young king Ďĺňđ I, our country experienced ďĺđĺëîěíűé the moment of the history. In Russia, as against the main West-European countries, almost there were no large industrial firms capable to provide the country by the weapon, fabrics, agricultural instruments. She(it) had no an output(exit) to the seas — neither to Black, nor to Baltic, through which could develop foreign trade. Russia and own military fleet had no therefore which would guard its(her) boundaries. The overland army was under construction by out-of-date principles and consist mainly from nobiliary îďîë÷ĺíč˙. The noblemen reluctantly left(abandoned) the estates for military campaigns, their arms and the military training lagged behind advanced European armies.

Between old, đîäîâčňűě áî˙đńňâîě and ńëóćčâűěč the people — by noblemen went fierce struggle for authority. In the country there were continuous revolts of the peasants and urban bottoms, which struggled both against noblemen, and against boyars, ň. To. All of them were the feudal lords - ęđĺďîńňíčęŕěč. Russia involved(attracted) in itself greedy looks of the adjacent states — of Sweden, Speech Ďîńňďîëčňîé, which íĺďđî÷ü were to capture and to subordinate to themselves Russian grounds.

It was necessary to reorganize army, to construct fleet, to take possession of coast of the sea, to create a domestic industry, to rebuild a control system of the country. For radical ëîěęč of old óęëŕäŕ of Russia the clever and talented chief, uncommon man was necessary. Such also has appeared Ďĺňđ I.

Ďĺňđ not only has comprehended(overtaken) âĺëĺíčĺ of time, but also has given back on the service this âĺëĺíčţ all uncommon talent, persistence îäĺđćčěîăî, patience, inherent in the Russian man, and skill to add business a state range. Ďĺňđ imperously interfered in all spheres of life of the country and much more has sped up development of the beginnings obtained in the inheritance.

The history of Russia up to Ďĺňđŕ Great and after him(it) knew many reforms. The main difference Ďĺňđîâńęčő of conversions from reforms of prior and subsequent time was, that Ďĺňđîâńęčĺ carried universal character, covered all sides of life of the people, while others inserted innovations concerning only separate spheres of life of a society(community) and the state we, the people of the end XX of century, we can not to the full estimate explosive effect Ďĺňđîâńęčő of reforms in Russia. The people last, XIX of century perceived them is sharper, is deeper. That the contemporary Ďóřęčíŕ the historian of m wrote about value Ďĺňđŕ. Í. Ďîăîäčí in 1841, ň. ĺ. Almost 1,5 centuries after great reforms of the first quarter XVIII of century: “ In hands (Ďĺňđŕ) the ends of all our strings incorporate in one site. Where we shall look back, everywhere we meet with this ęîëîńńŕëüíîţ ôčăóđîţ, which throws from herself a long shadow on all ours past and even çŕńňčň to us an ancient history, which a present minute still as though holds the hand above us, and with which, it seems, we from sort never shall lose, as though far we have left in the future ”.

Created in Russia Ďĺňđîě has gone through both generation Ďîăîäčíŕ, and following generations. For example, last đĺęđóňńęčé the set was held in 1874, ň. ĺ. After 170 years after first (1705). A senate ďđîńóůĺńňâîâŕë with 1711 till December, 1917, ň. ĺ. 206 years; the Synod device of orthodox church remained constant with 1721 for 1918, ň. ĺ. Within 197 years, the system ďîäóříîé ďîäŕňč was cancelled only in 1887, ň. ĺ 163 years after after its(her) introduction in 1724.

Or else, in a history of Russia we shall find a few institutes, consciously created by the man, which ďđîńóůĺńňâîâŕëč so it is long, having rendered so strong effect on all sides of public life. Moreover, some principles and stereotypes of political consciousness worked out or finally fixed at Ďĺňđĺ, are crashproof till now; sometimes in new verbal clothes they exist as traditional units of our thinking and public behaviour.

2.  
3. HISTORICAL CONDITIONS And PREMISES ĎĹŇĐÎÂŃĘČŐ of REFORMS

ňđŕíŕ stood on the eve of great conversions. What premises ďĺňđîâńęčő of reforms were? Russia was the backward country. This backwardness represented serious danger to independence of Russian people. The industry on the structure was ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęîé, and on size of production considerably conceded industries of the West-European countries. Russian army in a significant part consist from backward nobiliary îďîë÷ĺíč˙ and ńňđĺëüöîâ, badly armed and trained. Complex(difficult) and slow ďđčęŕçíîé the state device, in which chapter there was áî˙đńęŕ˙ an aristocracy, did not respond needs(requirements) of the country. Lagged behind Đóńü and in the field of spiritual culture. The education has not penetrated into national weights almost, and even in ruling circles was uneducated and at all of illiterate people much. Russia XVII of century by course of historical development was set before necessity of radical reforms, as only with such way could provide to itself a worthy place among the states of West and East. It is necessary to mark, that to this time of a history of our country already there were significant shifts in its(her) development. There were first industrial firms ěŕíóôŕęňóđíîăî of a type, the handicraft crafts, craft grew, the trade ńĺëüőîçďđîäóęňŕěč developed. A public and geographical division of labour — a basis of the usual and developing All-Russia market continuously increased. The city was separated from äĺđĺâíč. The trade and agricultural areas were selected(allocated). Developed internal and foreign trade. In second half XVII of century starts to vary character state creating on Đóńč, is more and more clearly made out ŕáńîëţňčçě. Have received further development Russian culture and sciences: Mathematicians and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and “đóäîçíŕňńňâî”. Ęŕçŕęč-çĺěëĺďđîőîäöű have opened a number of new grounds in Siberia.

Áĺëčíńęčé was right, when spoke about businesses and people äîďĺňđîâńęîé of Russia: “ My God, what epoch, what persons! Yes them would become to several Řĺęńďčđŕě and Âŕëüňĺđŕě Ńęîňňŕě! ” XVII the century was time, when Russia has placed(installed) constant dialogue with Western Europe, has fastened with it(her) closer trade and diplomatic links, used its(her) engineering and science, perceived its(her) culture and education. Studying and borrowing, Russia developed independently, took only that it was necessary, and only then, when it was necessary. It was time of accumulation of forces of Russian people, which has enabled to carry out prepared by course of historical development of Russia grandiose reforms Ďĺňđŕ.

Reforms Ďĺňđŕ was prepared by all prior of histories of the people, “ it were required by the people ”. Already up to Ďĺňđŕ íŕ÷ĺđňŕíŕ there was a rather integral transforming program, in many respects ńîâďŕäŕâřŕ˙ with reforms Ďĺňđŕ, in other gone even is farther than them. The conversion in general was prepared which at a peace course of businesses could đŕńńđî÷čňüń˙ on a lot of generations. The reform, as she(it) was executed Ďĺňđîě, was his(its) personal business, business áĺńďđčěĺđíî violent and, however, involuntary and necessary. The external dangers of the state anticipated natural growth of the people, çŕęîńíĺâřĺăî in the development. The upgrade of Russia could not be given step-by-step silent operation of time which is not pushed violently. The reforms have touched literally all sides of life of Russian state and Russian people, however to main of them it is necessary to attribute(relate) the following reforms: Military, bodies of authority and handle, class device of Russian society(community), ďîäŕňíóţ, church, and also in the field of culture and life.

It is necessary to mark, that main moving force ďĺňđîâńęčő of reforms became war.

4.  
5. Military reform

This period occurs radical reorganization of the armed forces. In Russia there is a powerful regular army and in this connection is liquidated ďîěĺńňíîĺ nobiliary îďîë÷ĺíčĺ and ńňđĺëĺöęîĺ an army. A basis of army began to make regular ďĺőîňíűĺ and ęŕâŕëĺđčéńęčĺ of a shelf with uniform staff(state), regimentals, arms which is carrying out battle(dashing) preparation according to îáůĺŕđěĺéńęčěč by the charters. Main of them were Military 1716ă. and Sea charters 1720ă., in which development participated Ďĺňđ I.

The development of metallurgy promoted significant growth of production of artillery instruments, the out-of-date variegrated artillery was substituted by instruments of new samples. In army connection cold for the first time was made and fire-arms — to a gun was will adjoin a bayonet, that considerably has strengthened îăíĺâóţ and shock power of an army. In the beginning XVIIIâ. for the first time in a history of Russia on Don and on Baltic the naval fleet was created, that on value did not concede to creation of regular army. The construction of fleet was carried out íĺâčäŕííî by fast rates at a level of the best samples of military shipbuilding of that time. The creation of regular army and fleet has required new principles of their acquisition. In a basis the system possessing doubtless advantages before other forms, having in that time, of acquisition was fixed đĺęđóňńęŕ˙. The nobility was released from đĺęđóňńęîé ďîâčííîńňč, but for it(her) the military or civil service was mandatory.

6.  
7. Reforms of bodies of authority and handle

The first quarter XVIIIâ. the whole complex of reforms connected to modification of central and local bodies of authority and handle was carried out. Their essence was creation äâîđ˙íńęî-÷číîâíč÷üĺăî of the centralized device ŕáńîëţňčçěŕ.

Since 1708 Ďĺňđ I of the beginnings to rebuild old establishments and to substitute by their new, therefore there was a following system of bodies of authority and handle. All entirety of legislative, executive and judicial authority has concentrated in hands Ďĺňđŕ, which after termination(ending) Northern war has received a title of the emperor. In 1711 the new supreme body of the executive and judicial authority — a Senate possessing and significant legislative functions was created. Instead of the out-of-date system of the orders 12 boards were created, each of which knew by the defined branch or sphere of handle and submitted to a Senate. The boards have received the right to issue the decrees on those questions, which entered into their support. Except for boards the known number of offices, offices, departments, orders was created, which functions also were precisely differentiated. In 1708 — 1709 ăă. The modification of bodies of authority and handle on places started. The country was divided on 8 ăóáĺđíčé, differing on territory and quantity(amount) of the population. In the chapter ăóáĺđíčč there was a governor, assigned by king concentrating in the hands the executive and auxiliary authority. At the governor there was ăóáĺđíńęŕ˙ an office. But the rule(situation) was complicated by that the governor submitted not only emperor and Senate, but also all boards, instruction and which decrees quite often contradicted each other. Ăóáĺđíčč per 1719 were divided into a province, which number was equaled 50. In the chapter of a province stood âîĺâîäŕ with provincial office at it(him). The provinces were in turn divided on äčńňđčęňű (districts) with âîĺâîäîé and district office. After introduction ďîäóříîé ďîäŕňč were created ďîëęîâűĺ äčńęđčňű. Ęâŕđňčđîâŕâřčĺ in them the military parts observed of collection ďîäŕňĺé and stopped manifestations of complaint and antifeudal performances(statements). All this complex(difficult) system of bodies of authority and handle had precisely expressed ďđîäâîđ˙íńęčé character and fixed active involvement of nobility in realization of the dictatorship on places. But she(it) has expanded size and simultaneously even more form of the service of noblemen, that called(caused) their complaint.

 

8. REFORM of the CLASS DEVICE of RUSSIAN SOCIETY(COMMUNITY)

ĺňđ put by the purpose creation of the powerful nobiliary state. For this purpose it was necessary to distribute among noblemen of knowledge, to raise(increase) their culture, to make nobility prepared and suitable for achievement of those purposes, which put before itself Ďĺňđ. Between that, the nobility in the majority was not prepared for their understanding and realization.

Ďĺňđ achieved, that all nobility considered(counted) “ ăîńóäŕđĺâó the service ” as the honourable right, calling, skilfully to correct by the country and íŕ÷ŕëüńňâîâŕňü above armies. For this purpose it was necessary first of all to distribute among noblemen derivation. Ďĺňđ has placed(installed) a new duty of noblemen — educational: with 10 till 15 years nobleman should study “ in the letter, öčôčđč and geometry ”, and then should go to be. Without help about “training” nobleman did not give “ âĺíĺ÷íîé memory ” — of permission to marry.

By the decrees 1712, 1714 and 1719 ăă. The order was placed(installed), on which “đîäîâčňîńňü” was not considered at assignment on a post and passing of the service. And on the contrary, âűőîäöű from the people most gifted, active, devoted to business Ďĺňđŕ, had possibility to receive any military or civil grade. Not only “őóäîđîäíűĺ” noblemen, but also even the people of a “mean” origin were put forward Ďĺňđîě on outstanding state posts.

9.  
10. Church reform

ŕćíóţ the role in the statement ŕáńîëţňčçěŕ was played by(with) church reform. In 1700ă. the patriarch Ŕäđčŕí has died, and Ďĺňđ I has prohibited to select to it(him) the successor. The handle of church was entrusted to one of ěčňđîďîëčňîâ, fulfilling functions “ ěĺńňîáëţńňčňĺë˙ ďŕňđčŕđřĺăî ďđĺńňîëŕ ”. In 1721ă. ďŕňđčŕđřĺńňâî was liquidated, for handle of church was created “ Ńâ˙ňĺéřčé ďđŕâčňĺëüńňâóţůčé a Synod ”, or Spiritual board also submitting to a Senate.

The church reform meant liquidation of an independent political role of church. She(it) turned to the constituent of the ÷číîâíč÷üĺ-bureaucratic device ŕáńîëţňčńňńęîăî of the state. In a parallel way with it the state has strengthened a control behind the incomes of church and their significant part on needs of treasury was systematically excepted. These operations Ďĺňđŕ I displeased church hierarchy and black clergy and were by one of main reasons of their involvement in any sorts reactionary çŕăîâîđŕő.

Ďĺňđ has carried out the church reform which has expressed in creation of joint (Synod) handle by Russian church. The destruction ďŕňđčŕđřĺńňâŕ mirrored tendency Ďĺňđŕ to liquidate inconceivable at autocracy ďĺňđîâńęîăî of time “ęí˙ćĺńęóţ” the system of church authority. Having declared itself actually by chapter of church, Ďĺňđ has deleted its(her) autonomy. Moreover, it(he) widely used institutes of church for realization of police policy. The citizens, under fear of the large penalties, were obliged to visit(attend) church and to repent on a confession to the priest of the sins. The priest, also according to the law, was obliged to inform authorities on all unlawful, becoming known on a confession. The transformation of church in bureaucratic office, standing on protection of interests of autocracy serving his(its) searches, meant destruction for the people of spiritual alternative to the mode and ideas going from the state. The church became the obedient instrument of authority and by that in many respects has lost respect of the people, subsequently so indifferently looking and on its(her) destruction under fragments of autocracy, and on corrupting of its(her) temples.

11.  
12. Reforms in the field of culture and life

ëŕâíűě a contents of reforms in this area was becoming and development of society national culture, society education, serious changes in a life and customs which are carried out in the schedule ĺâđîďčçŕöčč.

The important changes in life of the country resolutely required(demanded) preparation of the qualified frames. Taking place in hands of church scholastic school provide it could not. Began to open society schools, the derivation began to gain society character. It needed creation of the new tutorials which have come on change church.

Ďĺňđ I in 1708ă. has entered the new civil font which has come on change to old ęčđčëëîâńęîěó ďîëóóńňŕâó. For printing the society educational, scientific, political literature and acts the new printing houses in Moscow and St. Petersburg were created.

The development ęíčăîďĺ÷ŕňŕíč˙ was accompanied by the beginning of the organized book-trade, and also creation and development of the network of libraries. With 1702ă. systematically there was a first Russian newspaper of “Sheet”. To development of an industry both trade were connected learning and mastering of territory and íĺäđ of the country, that has found the expression in organization of a number of large expeditions(dispatches). Large technical innovations and inventions at this time have appeared, is especial in development of mountain business and metallurgy, and also in military area. In this period the number of the important operations on a history is written, and created Ďĺňđîě I Ęóíńňęŕěĺđŕ has put a beginning to collection of collections of historical and memorial subjects and rarities, weapon, materials on natural sciences and ň. ä. Simultaneously began to gather ancient written sources, to remove copies of the annals, letters, decrees and other acts. It was by the beginning of museum business in Russia. The logical total of all measures in the field of development of science and education was the basis in 1724ă. Academies of sciences in St. Petersburg.

From the first quarter XVIII in. The transition to town-planning and regular design of cities was carried out. Shape of city began to define(determine) the not so cult architecture, and äâîđöű and private residences, house of government agencies and aristocracy. In painting on change čęîíîďčńč there comes a portrait. The attempts of creation of Russian theatre concern also to the first quarter XVIII in., in the same time first were written äđŕěŕňóđăč÷ĺńęčĺ of product. The changes in a life mentioned weight of the population. Old habitual äîëăîďîëŕ˙ the clothes with long sleeves were prohibited and was substituted new. Doublets, ties and ćŕáî, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, áŕřěŕęč, the wigs fast superseded in cities old Russian clothes. Faster all the West-European upper clothes and dress among the women were distributed. Was prohibited íîřĺíčĺ of a beard, that has displeased, is especial ďîäŕňíűő of estates. Were entered special “ áîđîäîâîé tax ” and mandatory copper sign about his(its) payment.

Ďĺňđ I has founded assemblies with mandatory presence on them of the women, that mirrored serious changes of their rule(situation) in a society(community). The establishment of assemblies has put began to the statement in the environment of Russian nobility “ corrected of a good form ” and “ of noble behaviour in a society(community) ”, use foreign, mainly French, language. The changes in a life and culture, which have taken place in the first quarter XVIII in., had the large progressive value. But they underlined selection of nobility in even more privileged estate, have transformed usage of the boons and achievements of culture into one of the nobiliary class privileges and was accompanied by a wide circulation ăŕëëîěŕíčč, contemptious ratio to Russian and Russian culture in the nobiliary environment.

 

13.  
14. The totals of reforms

To the country not only were saved, but became stronger and dominated ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęčĺ of the ratio with all generations, accompanying them, both in economy, and in the field of a deckhouse. However changes in all spheres of socio economic and political life of the countries gradually stored and íŕçđĺâŕâřčĺ in XVII century, have developed in the first quarter XVIII of century into qualitative jump. Medieval Moscow Đóńü has turned to the Russian empire. In its(her) economy, level and forms of development of productive forces, political ńňđîĺ, structure and functions of bodies of authority, the handles and court, in organization of army, in ęëŕńńîâîé and class structure of the population, in culture of the country and life of the people have taken place huge changes. With a radical image have varied a place of Russia and its(her) role in the international ratioes of that time.

Naturally, all these changes occured on ôĺîäŕëüíî ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęîé to a basis. But this create existed already in perfect(completely) other conditions. It(he) yet has not lost possibility for the development. Moreover, the rates and pŕçěŕő of mastering by him(it) of new territories new spheres of economy and productive forces considerably have increased. It allowed it(him) to decide(solve) for a long time ripened national tasks. But forms, in which ü they the purposes were decided(solved),, with which they were, more and more clearly showed, ÷ňo strengthening and development ôĺîäŕëüíî ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęîăî creating at presence of the premises for development of the capitalist ratioes turn to a main brake for progress of the country. Already during government Ďĺňđŕ Great the main inconsistency peculiar to period of late feudalism is tracked. The interests autocratic - ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęîăî states and class of the feudal lords as a whole, national interests of the country required(demanded) acceleration of development of productive forces, active assistance to growth of an industry, trade, liquidation of technical and economic and cultural backwardness of the country. But for solution of these tasks were necessary abbreviation(cutting) sphere of operation ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńňâŕ, derivation of the market âîëüíîíŕĺěíîé of a labour, limitation both liquidation of the class rights and privileges of nobility. Occured opposite: distribution ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńňâŕ âřčđü and deep into, consolidation of the class of the feudal lords, fixing, extension and legislative design of his(its) rights and privileges. Çŕěĺäëĺííîńňü of creation áóđćóŕçčč and transformation her(it) in the class resisting to the class of the feudal lords - ęđĺďîńňíčęîâ, resulted that ęóďĺ÷ĺńňâî and çŕâîä÷čęč it appeared involved in sphere ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęčő of the ratioes.

Complexity and inconsistency of development of Russia in this period have defined(determined) also inconsistency of activity Ďĺňđŕ and reforms, carried out by him(it). On the one hand, they had huge historical sense, as promoted progress of the country, were aimed at liquidation of its(her) backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out ęđĺďîńňíčęŕěč, ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęčěč by methods and were directed on strengthening of their domination. Therefore progressive conversions ďĺňđîâńęîăî of time from the very beginning carried in themselves conservative features, which during further development of the country appeared all more strongly and could not provide liquidation of socio economic backwardness. In result ďĺňđîâńęčő of conversions Russia fast has caught up those European countries, where the domination ôĺîäŕëüíî-ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęčő of the ratioes was saved, but she(it) could not catch up those countries, which have risen on capitalist path of development.

The transforming activity Ďĺňđŕ differed in unrestrained energy, unprecedented range and purposefulness, boldness in ëîěęĺ of the become obsolete establishments, laws, foundations and óęëŕäŕ of life and life. Perfectly understanding the important value of development of trade and industry, Ďĺňđ has carried out a number of measures, óäîâëĺňâîđ˙âřčő interests ęóďĺ÷ĺńňâŕ. But it(he) strengthened and fixed ęđĺďîńňíűĺ the orders, proved the mode autocratic äĺńďîňčçěŕ. The operations Ďĺňđŕ differed not only resoluteness, but also extreme cruelty. On neat definition Ďóřęčíŕ, his(its) decrees “ quite often were severe, are capricious and, it seems, ďčńŕíű ęíóňîě ”.

Was not and there could not be beforehand developed common schedule of reforms. They were born gradually, and one derivated another, Meeting the requirements the given moment. And each of them called(caused) a resistance on the part of the most various social layers, displeased, hidden and open resistance, çŕăîâîđű and struggle distinguished by extreme exasperation.

15.  
16. Socio economic development and social policy of government in first quarter xvii in.

îíĺö the XVII-first quarter XVIII in. Some essential changes to the system of agriculture have not brought, former there were instruments of work, ŕăđîňĺőíčęŕ and agricultural cultures. The production of agricultural products grew for the score đŕńďŕřęč and inclusion in constant processing of new territories in the south and east of the country. The serious changes have taken place in the system of the feudal property, âëŕäĺëü÷ĺńęčő and state ďîâčííîńňĺé of the peasants, in ďîäŕňíîé to the system, authority of the landowners above the peasants even more has become stronger. In the first quarter XVIII in. The junction of two forms of feudal landed property was completed: by the decree about ĺäčíîíŕńëĺäčč (1714) all nobiliary estates turned in âîň÷číű, ground and the peasants passed in the complete unlimited property of the landowner. The extension and strengthening of feudal landed property and ńîáńňâĺííč÷ĺńęčő of the rights of the landowner promoted satisfaction of the increased needs(requirements) of noblemen in money. It entailed rise of sizes of the feudal rent, ńîďđîâîćäŕâřĺéń˙ by growth country ďîâčííîńňĺé, strengthened and expanded link nobiliary âîň÷číű with the market.

The decree about ĺäčíîíŕńëĺäčč has completed consolidation of the class of the feudal lords in the uniform class — estate of noblemen — and has strengthened his(its) prevailing rule(situation). But here there was also other side. The landowners and former âîň÷čííčęč were obliged to carry the service in regular army and fleet, in the device of authority and handle. It was the constant, mandatory, chronic(life) service. All this displeased nobility and resulted that his(its) known part participated in various sort çŕăîâîđŕő. With the purposes of rise of taxes the transcription all ďîäŕňíîăî of the population was made and is entered ďîäóříŕ˙ to submit, which has changed the object of taxation, has doubled the sum âçűěŕâřčőń˙ from the population ďîäŕňĺé. The increase of feudal maintenance was not limited to increase ďîäŕňíîăî of taxation and growth of sizes áŕđůčíű and îáđîęŕ. On this time the unprecedented increase state ďîâčííîńňĺé (road, ˙ěńęîé, ďîńňîéíîé) is necessary, which cost quite often considerably exceeded sizes ďîäóříîé ďîäŕňč. The peasant besides ďîäóříîé ďîäŕňč paid still huge number of every possible taxes and collections called to enlarge become empty as a result of wars treasury, which have become empty as a result of wars for creation of the bulky and expensive device of authority and handle, regular army and fleet and ň. Item. In 1722 was published “ the Sheet about ranks ”, which installed compulsion of the service of noblemen, and they should start her(it) from the most lowest grades of the auxiliary ladder consisting of 14 steps, or grades. In an industry of Russia in this period there was a present jump, has grown large ěŕíóôŕęňóđíŕ˙ an industry, which main branches were metallurgy and metal working, shipbuilding, textile and tanning industry. A feature of an industry was that she(it) was grounded on forced work. It meant distribution ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńňâŕ on new modes of production and new spheres of economy. Rough the then development ěŕíóôŕęňóđíîé of an industry (by the end of the first quarter of century in Russia operated more than 100 ěŕíóôŕęňóđ) substantially was provided with protectionist policy of Russian government directed on encouragement of development of a national economy, first of all in an industry and trade, both internal, and especially external. The character of trade has varied. Development ěŕíóôŕęňóđíîăî and craft production, his(its) specialization on separate areas of the country, âň˙ăčâŕíčĺ ęđĺďîńňíîăî of a facilities(economy) in the ňîâŕđíî-money ratioes and obtaining by Russia of an output(exit) to the Baltic sea have given a powerful push to growth internal and foreign trade. A feature of foreign trade of Russia of this period was that export making 4, 2 ěëí. đóá., twice exceeded import. The interests of development of an industry and trade, without which ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęîĺ the state could not successfully decide(solve) the tasks, set before it(him), defined(determined) his(its) policy concerning cities, ęóďĺ÷ĺńňâŕ and craft population. The population of city was divided on “regular”, owning the property, and "”irregular". In turn, “regular” was divided into two guilds. The merchants and industrialists, and to second - fine ęóďĺ÷ĺńňâî and handicraftsmen concerned to first. The option in urban establishments used only “regular” population.

The idea about human, instead of áîăîäŕííîé to a nature of the state derivated performance that the state — it and is that ideal tool of conversion of a society(community), education of the virtuous citizen, ideal institute, with which help the line of horizon, purpose of mankind is possible to reach(achieve) “ of the general boon ” — desired, but permanently leaving, as.

To the society(community) only recently which has issued a gloom of a middle ages,appear, that the key fortunately is retrieved, it is necessary to formulate the laws and with the help of organization — of the state — sequentially to lead(carry out) them in life. From here and amazing optimism of the people XVII — XVIII ââ., íŕčâíŕ˙ âĺđŕ in unlimited forces of the reasonable man erecting on the drawings on the “reasonable” beginnings the ship, house, city, state, society(community).

Äîńňîčí of a mention and known mechanism of thinking of the people ďĺňđîâńęčő of times in the approach to a society(community), man and nature. The produced successes of exact, natural sciences allowed to treat public life as the process close to mechanical. All these ideas and images with a different degree of abstraction and the simplifications had wide circulation in the European society(community), and together with ideas of reforms (and some of them — even earlier) have reached(achieved) Russia, where, having changed under effect of the Russian conditions, became by units of political consciousness. Certainly, exaggeration will assert(approve), that at exponentation of the empire Ďĺňđ has put in pawn in its(her) basis the philosophical concepts Äĺęŕđňŕ and Ńďčíîçű. The speech goes about the defined and strong influence of these ideas on consciousness of the great reformer.

Without the registration of all these circumstances it is difficult to give an adequate rating of the person of the king - reformer, his(its) conversions. Abundantly clearly, that in Russia within a reign Ďĺňđŕ there was a sharp economic jump. The industrial construction Ďĺňđîâńęîé of epoch passed by unprecedented rates: for the first quarter XVIII in. Has arisen not less than 200 ěŕíóôŕęňóđ instead of those 15-20, which existed in the end XVII in. A most characteristic feature of economic boom of a beginning XVIII in. Consist in a defining role of the autocratic state in economy, his(its) active and deep penetration into all spheres of economic life. Ăîńďîäńňâîâŕâřčĺ in Europe the economic concepts ěĺđęŕíňčëčçěŕ recognized that by a basis of riches of the state a necessary condition of his(its) existence is the accumulation of money at the expense of active balance of trade, export of the goods on the another's markets and precludings to import of the foreign goods on the market. Already one it in itself assumed interference of the state in sphere of economy. The encouragement entailed one — “useful”, “unnecessary” — of sorts of production, crafts of the goods limitation or even prohibition others — “not useful” from the point of view of the state.

Ďĺňđ, dreaming about power äĺđćŕâű, was not indifferent to the concepts ěĺđęŕíňčëčçěŕ. The idea about a managing role of the state in life of a society(community) in general and in economy in particular (with application of methods of enforcement in economic policy) coincided with a common direction of idea “ of violent progress ”, which followed Ďĺňđ.

But another is more important — in the Russian conditions not only and not so much concepts ěĺđęŕíňčëčçěŕ have stipulated choice of a direction of economic policy, for the beginning XVIII in. By strongest ńňčěóë˙ňîđîě of state construction and in the whole interference of the state in economic sphere the unsuccessful beginning of Northern war 1700-1721 ăă became characteristic. The construction numerous ěŕíóôŕęňóđ, mainly of defensive value, was carried out not from abstract performances about development of economy or accounts to receive the incomes, and was direct and is rigidly determined by necessity to provide army and fleet with the weapon, ammunition, ammunition, regimentals. The extreme situation after a defeat under Narva in 1700 has forced to realize necessity of increase and reequipment of army, has defined(determined) character, rates and specificity of industrial boom, eventually all economic policy ďĺňđîâńęîăî of autocracy. In the state industry, created for short time, the principles and receptions(tricks) of handle of economy, characteristic for the subsequent years and unfamiliar to Russia prior ďîđű were fulfilled.

The similar situation has arisen and in trade. Creating an own industry, the state created (more precisely — sharply strengthened) and own trade, tending to receive a maxima of the profit from the running goods inside the country and export goods at sale them abroad. The state captured trade primitive, but very effective way — by introduction of monopoly on preparation and selling of the defined goods, and the circle of such goods permanently extended. Among them there were salt, ëĺí, leather(skin), ďĺíüęŕ, bacon, wax and many others. The installation of state monopoly carried on to âîëţíňŕđčńňńęîěó to rise of the prices on these goods inside the country, and most important — to limitation, regulation of trade activity of Russian merchants. A consequence became disorder, disorganization free, based on market ęîíúţęňóđĺ of trade business. In an overwhelming number of cases the introduction of state monopoly meant transmission of the right of sale ěîíîďîëčçčđîâŕííîăî of the goods concrete îňęóďůčęó, which paid in treasury at once large sum of money, and then aspired with interest to return them at the expense of a customer or supplier of raw material, âçäóâŕ˙ of the price and deleting on to the radical of the competitors.

Ďĺňđîâńęŕ˙ the epoch has remained in a history Russian ęóďĺ÷ĺńňâŕ as original ëčőîëĺňüĺ. Sharp amplification(strengthening) of direct taxes and various state “services” — at customs houses, ďčňĺéíűő collections and ň. ä. — from merchants as most solvent part of the townspeople, violent ńęîëŕ÷čâŕíčĺ of the trade companies (form of organization of trade, which seem Ďĺňđó most suitable in the Russian conditions) — it only part of resources and ways of enforcement, which Ďĺňđ has applied to ęóďĺ÷ĺńňâó, putting an overall objective to extract maximal money for treasury.

In a channel of similar measures it is necessary to consider(examine) and forced resettlement of merchants in St. Petersburg, and also administrative regulation ăđóçîďîňîęîâ, when it was specified to merchants, in what ports and in what goods they can trade, and where it to do(make) categorically is forbidden.

The rough interference of the state in sphere of trade has resulted in corrupting a unsteady basis, on which well-being of many rich merchants, namely loan and đîńňîâůč÷ĺńęîăî of the capital substantially kept. The price was those which was paid by(with) the Russian businessmen for a victory in Northern war. It is necessary to mark, that cost of a victory the townspeople has divided with the village population. On shoulders of Russian peasantry ďŕëŕ the greatest weight of war. The victory became possible(probable) due to superefforts of the people. The money and natural payments, đĺęđóň÷číŕ, heavy underwater and ďîńňîéíűĺ ďîâčííîńňč äĺńňŕáčëčçčđîâŕëč a national economy, have resulted to îáíčůŕíčţ, flight of hundreds thousand peasants. Amplification(strengthening) of robberies armed performances(statements), at last, revolt To. Áóëŕâčíŕ on Don became a consequence immense ďîäŕňíîăî of pressure on the peasants.

Approximately from the end 10 years XVIII in., when the military thunder-storm was finally removed on west and nobody doubted of successful completion of war, Ďĺňđ has gone on essential change of commercial and industrial policy. The monopoly to export trade was liquidated actually. Has undergone changes and industrial policy of government. The essence of changes consist in acceptance of various measures on encouragement of private(individual) industrial business.

The special distribution was received by(with) practice of transmission of state firms (in particular unprofitable for treasury) private(individual) owners or companies, specially created for it. The new owners received from the state numerous privileges: the interest-free loans, right of duty-free sale of the goods and ň. ä. The essential help to the businessmen rendered and authorized in 1724. The customs tariff facilitating export abroad of production domestic ěŕíóôŕęňóđ and simultaneously complicating (with the help of the high duties) import of the goods made on foreign ěŕíóôŕęňóđŕő.

However there are no basis to think, that, changing any measure economic policy, Ďĺňđ intended to weaken influence on economy of the prevailing system of authority, ň. ĺ. Is not realized promoted development of the capitalist forms and receptions(tricks) of the production which has obtained a wide circulation at this time in Western Europe.

The essence having place consist in change not of principles, and accents(stresses) of industrial - trade policy. Giving “indulgence” ěŕíóôŕęňóđčńňŕě and merchants, the state Ďĺňđŕ did not gather to be eliminated from economy and even to weaken the effect on it(her). Now all force of weight was transferred from the open forms of enforcement on creation and activity of the administrative - check bureaucratic computer, which could route economic (and not only her(it)!) life of the country through the carefully balanced system of original gateways and channels in the direction, necessary to the state. This operation also was charged again to created special official bodies.

It is necessary to mark, that before this time Russia did not know bodies of handle of trade both industry. Creation and the beginning of activity of boards and Main ěŕăčńňđŕňŕ made essence of having place changes. These bureaucratic establishments were by institutes of state regulation of national economy, bodies of realization of commercial and industrial policy of autocracy on a basis ěĺđęŕíňĺëčçěŕ.

It is important to mark, that in Sweden, whose official bodies have served as a sample for state reform, the similar boards carried out policy of royal authority on the same theoretical bases. However conditions of Russia essentially differed from Swedish not only scales of the country, basic distinctions of political structure, unusual intensity of industrial construction by forces of the state and on his(its) resources, but first of all by especial rigidity of regulations ramified system of limitations, excessive trusteeship above commercial and industrial activity ďîääŕíűő.

Organization or transmission of new firms to the companies or private(individual) businessmen represented the forms of actual rent. The conditions of this rent were precisely defined(determined) and if necessary varied with the state having the right, in case of their violation, to confiscate firms. A main duty of the owners was duly execution of the state orders; only excesses besides the fact that now is named “ăîńçŕęŕçîě”, the businessman could realize in the market. It sharply reduced value of a competition as eternal äâčćčňĺë˙ of business.

Active effect of the state on economic life of the country — it only one aspect of a problem. The social ratioes in the state deformed features ěŕíóôŕęňóđ as potentially capitalist firms. Speech first of all about usage of a labour.

During Northern war the state and the owners ěŕíóôŕęňóđ used both âîëüíîíŕĺěíóţ a labour, and “ďđčďčńíűő” of the peasants. However at the end of 10 — the beginning 20 years have taken place the important conversions of social character: the struggle with runaways of the peasants was sharply amplified(sharply strengthened), the detailed audit of the cash population with the subsequent fixing of their social status and fixing íŕâĺ÷íî to a place of recording in tax ęŕäŕńňđ was carried out.

The sharp turn in policy of government was mirrored in an industry, under doubt the possibility of deliveries of production in treasury was put. January 18, 1721. Ďĺňđ has signed the decree, which permitted to a quotient ěŕíóôŕęňóđčńňŕě, without dependence from their social accessory to buy to the factories ęđĺďîńňíűő of the peasants to use them on factory operations. This decree marked by itself a decisive step to transformation of industrial firms, on which arose capitalist óęëŕä, in firms ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęčĺ, in a variety of the feudal property _ original âîň÷čííóţ ěŕíóôŕęňóđó. The industry of Russia was set in such conditions, that she(it) actually could not develop on other, than ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęčé, path.

Ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęŕ˙ the policy in an industry deformed also process of derivation Russian áóđćóŕçčč. Ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńęŕ˙ the deformation has touched also sphere of public consciousness. Becoming äóřĺâëŕäĺëüöŕěč, ěŕíóôŕęňóđčńňű did not feel the social originality, and aspired to raise(increase) the status by obtaining nobility.

Thus, we shall mark two most important consequences of active state industrial construction: creation of powerful economic base so necessary developing nation, and simultaneously essential braking of the having been available tendencies of development of the country on capitalist paths, on which already there were European peoples.

By alternative to these decrees could only cancellation ęđĺďîńňíîăî become right. However such alternative for Ďĺňđŕ did not exist. Ęđĺďîńňíč÷ĺńňâî has impregnated all ďîđű of life of the country, consciousness of the people, played in Russia the special, universal role. The corrupting of legal structures of a lower floor would undermine a basis of autocratic authority.

From all conversions Ďĺňđŕ the central place is borrowed(occupied) by(with) reform of state handle, reorganization all of his(its) parts. In the beginning of reforms old ďđčęŕçíîé the device inherited Ďĺňđîě, did not undergo qualitative changes. Increase of sizes of administrative activity tried to compensate by growth of number of the new orders, offices. But per the first years of Northern war it became clear, that the revolutions of the mechanism of state handle, which main units were the orders and districts, were not in time(ripening) behind accruing speed ěŕőîâčęŕ of the autocratic initiative. Considerably to decide(solve) this problem Ďĺňđ tried with the help of regional reform — of creation of new administrative derivations — ăóáĺđíčé. The main purpose of this reform was support of army by all necessary: the direct link ăóáĺđíčé with shelfs of army distributed on ăóáĺđíč˙ě was installed.

The regional reform, responding the most urgent needs(requirements) of autocratic authority, was at the same time by consequence of development of the bureaucratic tendency, by so characteristic already for prior period. With the help of amplification(strengthening) of a bureaucratic unit in handle Ďĺňđ intended to decide(solve) all state questions. The reform has resulted not only in focusing financial and administrative powers in hands of the several governors — of representatives of central authority, but also to creation on places of the ramified hierarchical network of bureaucratic establishments with the large staff(state) of the officials.

The similar circuit(scheme) was incorporated in idea of organization of a Senate being the following level áţđîęđŕňčçŕöčč of maximum handle, confirmed increase of value of bureaucratic principles, without which Ďĺňđ did not think neither effective handle, nor autocracy as political mode of personal authority.

For understanding of many phenomena in a history of Russia it is necessary to underline a huge role of the state in life of a society(community). In many respects all progressive and reactionary goes from above. For Russia with old ďîđ there was natural a phenomenon, when not the public opinion defines(determines) the legislation, and, on the contrary, the legislation forms (and even deforms) public opinion and public consciousness. Ďĺňđ added huge value ďčńŕíîěó to the legislation, which in his(its) epoch differed by universal regulation and inconsiderate interference in private(individual) and personal life.

The law was realized only through the system of bureaucratic establishments. It is possible to speak about creation at Ďĺňđĺ of an original cult of establishment, administrative instance. The thought of the great reformer of Russia was directed, first, on creation of such perfect and universal legislation, which would be whenever possible covered with and all life of the citizens, secondly, Ďĺňđ is regulated dreamed of creation accomplished(perfect) and exact as hours of state structure, through which could be realized to the legislation. Ďĺňđ applied huge efforts to adjustment of uninterrupted, effective operation of the created establishments and main attention gave to development and refinement numerous đĺăëŕěĺíňŕöčîííűő of documents, which, on thought of their creator, should provide an overall performance of the device.

The ratio to official body as to military division, to the rules — as to the charter, and to serving — as to the soldier or officer was characteristic for outlook Ďĺňđŕ. It(he) was convinced, that the army — the most perfect public structure, that she(it) — worthy model of all society(community), and military discipline — is possible to bring up it that, with the help that in the people the order, diligence, consciousness, christian morals.

The implantation of military principles in civil sphere appeared in distribution of the military legislation at the system of official bodies, and also in giving to the laws defining operation of establishments, value and force of the military charters. For Ďĺňđŕ were the conscious orientation to military samples, desire is characteristic to add to the state computer of feature of grandiose âîĺííî-bureaucratic organization created and operating as a uniform military organism.

With Ďĺňđîâńęčő of times the army has borrowed(occupied) a produced place in life of Russian society(community), becoming his(its) major unit. Affirmed, that in Russia not the army was at the state, and, on the contrary, state at army. Creation of the bureaucratic computer which has come on change to the system of medieval handle, in which basis the custom, — the natural process, as bureaucracy — a necessary unit of structure of the states of new time laid. However in conditions of the Russian autocracy, when by anything and nobody the limited will ěîíŕđőŕ — a unique(sole) source of the right, when the official not îňâĺňńňâĺí before anybody, except for the chief, the creation of the bureaucratic computer became also original “ by bureaucratic revolution ”, during which the eternal engine of bureaucracy was started. Since ďĺňđîâńęčő of times it(he) began to work under the internal laws, inherent in it(him), for the sake of a ultimate goal of consolidation of the rule(situation). Many have made of these features and principles rallied ęŕńňó of the bureaucrats impregnable and about this day.

In a basis of the âîĺííî-bureaucratic system created Ďĺňđîě, laid precise čĺđŕđőč÷íîńňü, ńîďîä÷číĺííîńňü of all parts. Ďĺňđîâńęŕ˙ the epoch is remarkable by final design of autocracy. Liquidation of last tracks of class representation, creation ńâîäîâ of the laws fixing the right of the person to control to own millions on the basis of legally by nothing of the limited will with the help of the bureaucratic computer, — essence of main processes which were having place at Ďĺňđĺ.

 

17.  
18. Modern aspects of reforms

ĺôîđěű in Russia were undertaken repeatedly, but all attempts have not crowned by success. The main reason it is, that the tendency, periodically arising for authority, to changes concentrated not on change of a society(community), and on reforming of the state. The interests of the man were ignored by all reforms without exception.

Rules of reforming in Russia absolutely others, than in western society(community). In Russia there was no social base for đĺôîđěŕňîđńňâŕ by virtue of domination of traditional culture oriented on ideal čěďĺđńęóţ authority. To carry out reforms, it is necessary at least to formulate their ultimate goal. Russia instead of it always started to imitate the countries of western type to become the state capable actively to resist to West. Besides for reform the not lumpsum effort is necessary, their implementation assumes durable enough cycle — 2-3 generations — during this period stereotype of consciousness of the man completely varies. A basis of modification became idea ěŕňĺđčŕëčçŕöčč of authority. The bureaucratic nomenclature is tired from the unnatural status, when the authorities have a lot of, and large property — is not present. Even the boons, which they used, could at any moment leave together with ďŕđňáčëĺňîě. Ďĺđĺńňđîĺ÷íîĺ đĺôîđěŕňîđńňâî has especially “material” sources and thereof went “from above”. The people waited for changes, but was for the reformers “ the human factor ”. And today çëîáîäíĺâíî the words In. Ęëţ÷ĺâńęîăî sound: “ Russia was controlled not by aristocracy and not by democracy, and bureaucracy, that is operating outside of a society(community) and heap, deprived everyone social shape, of the physical persons of a various origin joined only ÷číîďđîčçâîäńňâîě. Thus äĺěîęđŕňčçŕöč˙ of handle was accompanied by amplification(strengthening) of a social inequality and äđîáíîńňč. ”

19.  
20. Reforms ďĺňđŕ and special path of Russia

îí˙ňčĺ of Russia was substantially identified with the State Russian. Understanding Russian, Russian territory after classical period Kiev Đóńč contacted to operation state ńîáčđŕíč˙.

Russian ýňíîń in his(its) modern understanding as something uniform essentially(in essence) was âűí˙í÷ĺí the state during merging đŕçíîďëĺěĺííűő of human weights. The state beginning in Russian history looks really as something, evolved of idea, creating, — Russian ýňíîń, territory and culture.

Becoming of a main positive principle of development — state, struggle for his(its) statement and ň. ä. — was carried out at the expense of mass reprisals, destruction whole óęëŕäîâ of life, at the expense of further limitation of freedom of the person. In Russia in conditions of weakness or practical absence of a civil society(community) of reform, which in Europe went from below, from a society(community), as result of an output(exit) on a surface new óęëŕäîâ, new types of manufactures in struggle with usual, — in Russia were carried out(spent) in interests of authority before the person of external and internal threat, in particular, on the part of an own society(community). Therefore these reforms were carried out first of all by means of suppression of a society(community), having caused a phenomenon of alienation of a society(community) from authority.

In Russia available especial, with anything not comparable development, in which the movement forward by paradoxical image is interlaced with suppression of freedom, and technical and other progress — with alienation of a society(community) from the state. As a result of historical development there was original “ a Russian path ” — from modernization before modernization. And as reforms from above, the implantation new is especial, require(demand) amplification(strengthening) authority, the development of productive forces in Russia, being accompanied by wavy amplification(strengthening) äĺńďîňčçěŕ on each coil of reforms, went in the side of destruction of a civil society(community) to some extent reviving, however after the epoch of reforms passed. The reforms Ďĺňđŕ have frozen processes of emancipation of a private property, is especial at the most mass, country level. Confirmation to this — corrupting of the right of private(individual) possession of ground owing to introduction leveling ďîäóříîăî (instead of ďîçĺěĺëüíîăî) tax for the state peasants. In due course this tax has resulted in liquidation of private(individual) possession, ďĺđĺäĺëŕě of ground by a community and to all to increasing interference of the state in businesses of the peasants. Now, îăë˙äűâŕ˙ the ruined country which has appeared suddenly, as in old times, poor and backward, which time in our history having felt itself before uncertainty of the future, is necessary to reflect, as our country through revolutionary áóđč century tradition has carried by with itself to create as a result of reforms hard - äĺńďîňč÷ĺńęčé mode of the special type, which in Russia was named as autocracy. The originality of historical path of Russia was, that each time the consequence of reforms appeared still large ŕđőŕčçŕöč˙ of the system of the public ratioes. She(it) also resulted in slow current of public processes, transforming Russia in the country of catching up development. The originality consists and that catching up, in the basis the violent reforms, which realization requires(demands) amplification(strengthening), even temporary, äĺńďîňč÷ĺńęčő of the beginnings of state authority, result, at the end, in long-time strengthening äĺńďîňčçěŕ. In turn slow development because of äĺńďîňč÷ĺńęîăî of the mode requires(demands) new reforms. And all repeats again. The cycles these become ňčďîëîăč÷ĺńęîé a feature of historical path of Russia. And is formed — as deviation from the usual historical order — the special path of Russia.

Whether the change of the usual historical order ” — the special path will be prolonged in our future “ which will cast into next time the country in ďŕđîęńčçě ęîíâóëüńčâíűő of violent changes, not giving anything in exchange, except for a perspective of repetition them in the future, already on peripherals of world(global) development? Or in our history the sense of a word “reform” will vary, and we shall find in ourselves forces, possibilities and will to borrow(occupy) of worthy great culture a place in this world? These questions can be answered only with the historians of the future generations, but it would be desirable, that in the affirmative — on second.

21.  
22. The list of the used literature

1. Ĺ. In. ŔÍČŃČĚÎÂ “ Birth of empire ”, in ęí. ” A History of Fatherland: the people, idea, solution. Sketches of a history of Russia of IX-beginning XXâ. ” /ńîńň. With. In. Ěčđîíĺíęî. — M.: Ďîëčňčçäŕň, 1991. — 367ń
2. Â. ĘĐČÂÎĐÎŇÎÂ “ Marks. Rises and fallings of the special path of Russia ” — “ Knowledge — force ”, N8, 9 1990ă.
3. Â. And. ÁÓĂŔÍÎÂ “ Ďĺňđ Great and his(its) time ” — M.: science, 1989. — 192ń
4. Í. Í. ĚÎË×ŔÍΠ“ Äčďëîěŕňč˙ Ďĺňđŕ Great ” — M.: the international ratioes, 1990. — 448ń
5. ” Russia at öŕđĺâíĺ Ńîôüĺ and Ďĺňđĺ I: a slip of the Russian people ” /ńîńň. And. Item. Áîăäŕíîâ. — M.: the contemporary, 1990. — 445ń
6. Â. In. ĚŔÂĐÎÄČÍ “ Birth of new Russia ” — Ë.: I LIE, 1988. -531ń
7. ” A History USSR from most ancient times up to the end XVIII in. ” /under đĺä.. And. Đűáŕęîâŕ — M.: a higher school, 1983. — 415ń
8. Â. About. ĘËŢ×ĹÂŃĘČÉ of the Composition in 9 vol. Ň. 4 Courses of Russian history. ×. 4 — M.: thought, 1989. — 398ń
9. Ń. ĘÍßÇÜĘΠ“ Sketches from a history Ďĺňđŕ Great and ĺăîâđĺěĺíč ” — M.: culture, 1990. — 658ń
10. ” Why all reforms in Russia were ended by a failure ” - “ the Moscow truth ”, 25. 11. 93ă., N228
11. Í. ĎŔÂËĹÍĘÎ “ Ďĺňđ Great: PRO ET CONTRA ” — “ Science čćčçíü ”, N2-1992.

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