Elizabeth Kent
East Carolina University
November 2003
Many occupations, such as carpentry, cooking, and even medicine, were traditionally taught using an apprenticeship program. Learners studied the techniques and knowledge of a skilled practitioner, and performed increasingly complex tasks under their mentor’s watchful eye. Over time, the learners were able to work without supervision and became experts in their turn. In contrast, classroom teachers used the “information transfer” model, attempting to pour knowledge into the learners’ heads (Hughes). Learning occurred by reading a book or listening to a lecture, perhaps followed by some hands-on experience. Much of the teaching in the U.S. public schools and universities, and in some corporate training programs, followed the information transfer model for many years.
Constructivists, however, believe that learning occurs most effectively when learners actively participate in learner-centered activities, incorporating new information into new knowledge. This approach is particularly true with adult learners, who prefer to have realistic examples and scenarios that they can envision using in their jobs or other activities. Adult learners need to know why they should learn something. (Fidishun)
This paper takes a high-level view of how constructivist principles can be applied in computer documentation. Clearly, the same principles could apply to online books and help in other fields. However, because my experience is primarily in computer documentation, I have used computer-related issues and examples.
A broad constructivist approach is best suited to support users of computer hardware and software. End users may associate the product documentation for a computer program as consisting only of the manuals, which may be either online or printed, the online help, and job aids, such as quick reference cards. Electronic performance support systems, instructional design, workplace and web-based training, and technical communications can all contribute to create a well-rounded and usable product. (Sherry)
A software company might also create documentation for internal use, such as frequently asked question lists for the support team, white papers for the company web site, and training material for the sales force for use in a situated class or delivered as web-based training. The company might also provide customers with a newsletter that includes tips and tricks, as well as information on new products.
Although the online help, manuals, and training courses might be developed from a single master set of source material, the specific deliverables have different requirements. Manuals, online help, and many job aids are used by individual users in the course of their work. Web-based training courses that follow the constructivist approach enable the users to interact with each other and require a different approach, a topic that is beyond the scope of this paper.
Curiously, an extensive search of the literature turned up very little specific information about using constructivism in user manuals and online help. Numerous papers have been written about constructivism in web-based training, stressing the need for interaction between learners. Perhaps the researchers felt that a solitary learner, for example, a programmer learning a new language, would not benefit from a constructivist approach to the same extent as a learner in web-based training. A study by the IBM Center for Advanced Learning contends that learning through collaboration increases knowledge retention to 70%, while knowledge attained by reading alone has only a 10% retention level. However, learning by doing, a basic constructivist technique, brought learning retention to 80%. (Olka) Our hypothetical programmer will retain more knowledge by writing code while reading the manual.
The IBM study shows a need for a constructivist approach in manuals and other documentation. By making information relevant to the learners, they can integrate it into existing knowledge, and apply the concepts to new situations.
Cognitive apprenticeship teaches the processes that experts use to handle complex tasks. (Conway) In a classroom or with web-based training, an expert is available to demonstrate techniques. Expert assistance can also be delivered through a company web site or technical support. By providing questions and examples from other customers, the company can show how to more effectively use an existing product, or try to influence customers to upgrade by providing supplemental product information. For example, I receive the Jasc Software email newsletter. The October newsletter included a letter from a customer who used an online tutorial from the web site and the online help to enhance a photograph, and later consulted the experts on the support desk to troubleshoot a problem. The newsletter also included a link to the first of an eight-part tutorial on how to more effectively size, edit, and arrange digital photographs, using a photo-processing component in the latest upgrade of Paint Shop™ Power Suite. (The newsletter also mentions the Thinify feature, which will remove 10 pounds from my picture!) (Jasc) I rarely use Paint Shop Pro on my home computer, and have had no interest in upgrading. The Jasc newsletter made excellent use of constructivist concepts, actively engaging my interest, and, more to the point for Jasc, interesting me in buying the upgrade. (Carliner)
Scaffolding is often considered part of the cognitive apprenticeship theory. In constructing a building, scaffolding is used to provide temporary support, and is removed when it is no longer needed. (Pahl) Similarly, many children have training wheels on their first bicycle; when they learn how to balance without that extra support, the training wheels are removed.
Technical communicators can provide scaffolding for new or difficult concepts. For example, some online help is designed to provide only a reminder of how to perform rarely used tasks. The online help could contain a concise procedure to support a task, with pop-up windows that provide more details. Alternatively, the online help could offer both a detailed and a concise version of procedures; users could then select the version that provides the appropriate amount of information. A new user might opt for the detailed procedure, and later choose the concise version as a reminder of steps in a rarely-used procedure.
The pop-up window approach might be more cumbersome to implement in an online book. Instead, users can reference supplemental information through a link to an appendix. The information is still conveniently available, but does not interfere with the flow of an explanation or a procedure.
Learning proceeds from the big picture to the small picture (Matusevich). How many times have you struggled with a concept, and had it become perfectly clear when you read through an example? The example provides context in existing knowledge, filtering the new idea so that it can fit into the learner’s mental framework.
Realistic examples and scenarios provide the best support for new ideas. (Parker) To maintain the flow of the text, an online document might include only one example in the central discussion of a concept, but support the interested reader with more information in pop-up windows, a related topic, or a supplemental section. For example, a white paper that describes the benefits of a new technology might start by reviewing features of the technology and conclude with examples of how different organizations are using the technology. Including a variety of industries lets interested readers identify similarities to their own situations, and possibly see a way to gain an edge on their competition. Isolating the information at the end of the paper lets readers focus on the technical concepts first.
Some learning situations are particularly suited to examples. In programming manuals, examples are crucial. Often, programmers are experienced in several languages, such as C++ and Visual Basic, and programming standards, such as Java. They can more easily integrate their existing experience into a new programming standard, such as Microsoft .NET, when the documentation includes examples for all new concepts as well as standard actions, such as retrieving data.
Many computer programs include a graphical user interface. For the documentation of this type of program, full or partial screenshots help the user to follow procedures. In fact, the cause of much user confusion might be because users don’t realize that they are on the wrong screen. (Hughes)
In some cases, a simple example helps the beginning learner, but stands in the way of future learning. (Spiro) A vivid example might explain a basic concept perfectly. However, some users will adopt that model so completely that they do not make the intellectual leap to extend the knowledge to similar cases. For example, many Adobe FrameMaker® users swear by IXgen®, an add-on product that lets you edit index entries far more conveniently than you can with FrameMaker’s built-in index feature. Because they associate IXgen so strongly with indexes, many experienced FrameMaker users are extremely surprised to learn that IXgen can also compile and edit other FrameMaker tags, including a user-defined tag that provides ALT text for graphics when the FrameMaker files are converted to HTML. The IXgen documentation is very explicit about this feature. (Frank Stearns Associates) However, users might get the message if the manual provided screenshots of generated lists of both index and ALT tags.
Tutorials can be valuable in helping both novice and more experienced users who need to understand a new product or features in a new version of a product. Again, realistic scenarios and tasks help the user to understand and retain the new knowledge, and apply it to other situations. For example, users must be trained to enter customer orders in a database, which sounds like one task, but actually could involve numerous sub-tasks, such as adding a customer, changing customer billing information, and checking product availability. A tutorial with a well-designed scenario could lead users through the screens they would encounter during typical transactions, and include some troubleshooting steps for common problems.
Some skills require practice so they become automatic. For example, learners who recognize that increased typing speed and accuracy results from typing a lot, are more willing to spend the time on typing drills. The success of the learners requires their active agreement to participate. (Duffy) Similarly, a person who is strongly motivated to learn bridge will spend the time in practice games on the computer to achieve success at a Saturday night bridge party.
Constructivism is not a theory that should be limited to the live or virtual classroom. Technical communicators can use the principles of constructivism to enhance the usability of manuals and online help through the addition of more examples and tutorials that help the reader to actively participate in relating to the material. Supporting documentation such as frequently asked question lists and white papers can also benefit from engage the user into active involvement with the subject matter.
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for Virtual Interactive Tutorials.” 10/31/2003.
<http://odtl.dcu.ie/wp/2002/odtl-2002-03.html>
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Sherry, Lorraine and Brent Wilson. “Supporting Human Performance Across Disciplines: A Converging of Roles and Tools.” Performance Improvement Quarterly, 9 (4), 19-36. 10/30/2003. <http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/pubs/pss.html>
Spiro, Rand, Paul J. Feltovich, Michael L. Jacobsen, and Richard L. Coulson. “Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains.” Educational Technology. 10/29/2003. <http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/Spiro.html>
“Thomas Duffy.” 10/28/2003. <http://www.gsu.edu/~wwwitr/interviews/duffy.htm>
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