1. INTRODUCTION
2. WHAT THE INTERNET HAS TO OFFER
2.1 THE TOOLS CURRENTLY AVAILABLE 2.2 THE POSSIBILITIES 2.3 CASE STUDY ON CURRENT USAGE OF COMPUTERS IN SPORTS SCIENCE
3. THE INTERNET'S IMPACT ON VARIOUS FACETS OF EDUCATION
3.1 THE IMPACT ON EDUCATION AS A WHOLE 3.2 THE IMPACT ON THE LEARNER 3.3 THE IMPACT ON THE TEACHER 3.4 THE IMPACT ON CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 3.5 POSSIBLE THREATS 3.5 THE IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
4. PHYSICAL EDUCATION'S HOME PAGE
4.1 A PIECE OF REAL ESTATE ON THE WEB 4.2 THE TOOLS REQUIRED FOR ACCESS
5. THE FUTURE: CONCEPTS, IDEAS AND OPPORTUNITIES
6. CONCLUSION
7.1 LITERATURE RESOURCES
7.2 INTERNET RESOURCES
7.2.1 Web Sites
7.2.2 Mailing lists
7.2.3 Newsgroups
8. APPENDICES
8.1 PHYSICAL EDUCATION'S HOME PAGE 8.2 SLIDE PRESENTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
On the political, socio-economic and technological front there currently exists a climate of rapid change. Today technological changes are playing an ever increasing role on influencing our lives, and as exiting and progressive as these developments are, it takes great foresight and imagination to predict their impact. With the dawning of the technological age value systems have changed, new societies have emerged along with their own cultures and they have subsequently found new ways to learn, entertain and create (Reinhardt,1995).
This new technology, in the form of the Internet, creates what is now known as "Cyberspace," a virtual society on a very real network. It provides a platform on which all can meet and communicate, it has its own culture and, as yet is the fastest growing "society" known to man (Kay, 1995). This culture is one that has grown from the need to communicate and share knowledge amongst many people, its very nature therefore promotes and encourages the spread of information through voluntary communication. The Internet may give us the chance to live an the age old dream of those who love knowledge, these networked computers could form a freely accessible universal library of all the knowledge mankind has created (Papert, 1993).
Most importantly people have a chance to experience the joy of learning, by working through an interactive medium filled with colour pictures, sound, animation and an almost limitless set of resources one has the chance to learn what one wants to learn and how one wants to learn it. Working on the Internet allows one the choice to follow one's own path of discovery and makes learning fun. There is in fact a qualitative change in the nature of learning (Kay, 1995).
Early on it is important to address one interesting and seemingly problematic issue. For Physical educators the nature of the Internet seems conflicting with the ideals and values that such educators wish to perpetuate, that of promoting physical exercise by practical demonstration and participation. From the above definition there seem to be limits to the benefit of the Internet and indeed there are. It is the intention of this essay to explore the opportunities available to physical educators on the Internet.
The current school system has highlighted negative trends with regard to the propagation of self knowledge. Children have lost the desire for the exploration of knowledge long before they acquire the book skills needed to support it. Whether education at large, the influence of the family, or even the technology-age is at fault is difficult to pinpoint, and is not really the issue. The fact is that children tend to emerge from the school system without the intellectual spark with which they were born and without the motivation to exercise (Papert, 1993). Schools tend to impose on children a sense of uniformity, they offer a successful yet limited form of education that suffers those who have developed markedly different intellectual skills. Currently we need an alternate source of learning that encourages learning on an individual basis, one which is child centred and one that is able to reach many students (Papert, 1993). The Internet offers a possible solution to this problem, with its interactive and multimedia(sound, animation, colour) platform it seems to be a promising way in re-instilling this spirit by encouraging individual exploration (Papert, 1993).
Realising the advantages of the Internet in Physical Education and education at large is one thing, but making use of it as an alternative, or simply a supplement, to the current system is a challenging task. Considering the opportunities and threats that encompass its implementation across an entire cultural spectrum makes the task even more difficult. One dares to assume that, given the opportunity to access the wealth of information available on the Internet, any South African can tackle life in this county armed, not with traditional weapons, but an educated mind, a healthy body and the ability to communicate and learn at will. Nelson Mandela aptly put the information revolution into perspective at the TELECOM 95 exhibition in Geneva last year:
2. WHAT THE INTERNET HAS TO OFFER
2.1 THE TOOLS CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Gaining access to the resources available on the Internet has been made easy by a number of tools. In its simplest form the Internet provides a base medium for communication with the use of e-mail. This provides an electronic postal system as it where, it is both faster and more reliable than our conventional 'snail mail.' Using this medium it becomes possible to write to researchers and fellow students world wide, the mail is delivered within minutes and is largely free. The friendly interactive nature on the Internet allows participating members to guide and educate other members and to show them the location of resources, it also provides an important opportunity for socialisation (Randall, 1994). It will provide easier access to richer and fuller bodies of knowledge than can be offered by any printed encyclopaedia (Papert, 1995).
Randall (1994) suggested one of the most effective ways of transferring information is through newsgroups and mailing lists. These are in effect extensions of e-mail and provide the user with specific interest groups and discussion topics to associate with.
Another tool, and probably the most pervasive and influential, is the world wide web(WWW). It allows companies, educators and other interest groups to create a generic 'page' that anyone can view. Ellsworth (1994) specifies numerous pages, or resource sites on the web pertaining directly to education. As of yet however, few of these are dedicated directly to Physical Education. As part of this review, a search was conducted for web sites pertaining directly to Physical Education. Over thirty five resources were found, all of them concentrating on health and Physical Education, their resources containing research papers, contact numbers, lesson plans and much more. These resources go a long way to demonstrate the value of the WWW to Physical Education. Through the (WWW) students can also freely enter the virtual realities of Olympic stadiums, football matches or even a chess tournament (Papert, 1995).
2.2 THE POSSIBILITIES
Physical educators and their associated departments can take advantage of the Internet in several ways. By following the example of other educational institutions of similar nature that have been exposed to the Internet for some time, the following ideas have been uncovered:
* Setting up a post graduate communications system whereby post graduate students share their experiences and advice with undergraduate students.
* Construct a generic 'home page' on the WWW that other students can access and in this way learn about a specific department, this option also fulfils a marketing role which is becoming increasingly important in a technologically aware society.
* To create extensions to specific programmes whereby underprivileged or distance learning students have access to resources and advice. This may promote effective distance learning and teaching from the home and school.
* Publish a specific departments' or students' research and receive critical comment.
* Participate in global research programs.
(Reinhardt, 1995).
The above is simply an example of some of the opportunities available to physical educators and their departments. Some institutions offer students actual degree courses that they can participate in, from anywhere in the world. New York University has already implemented such a course and Unisa is soon to follow (Reinhardt, 1995). The impact of these ideas seems both positive and progressive, however the impact it may have on our employment opportunities and the nature of learning itself is difficult to ascertain. These are important aspects to consider and these be dealt with in more detail in the next two chapters.
The Internet is no longer simply a source of information, it is now an interactive platform, a real time two way communications system with all the sound and visual effects to create real life simulation. The Internet has become exiting, enticing and absorbing. Kay (1995) stated that "as a teaching medium it may hold the key to promoting creative, individual thought and may re-cultivate the desire for knowledge." The Internet was in fact originally developed by educators for educators and although much has changed, the Internet's most important asset is still its ability to teach. The above mentioned simulation of real life events has real benefits for physical educators which will discussed further on in the text.
Brodi and Thornhill (1983) in an early publication labelled the microcomputer as "new piece of sports equipment". They described further ways in which the computer could be used to prepare, process and display advanced data. In addition, computers could be used to record real time information such as specific analysis of a players movement on court and information pertaining to strokes played and the resultant projectile speeds and trajectories. This data can be processed to indicate players physical weaknesses, strengths and then analyse technical performance in detail. With the inclusion of the Internet, all this information can be processed and disseminated globally, making it a far more powerful tool, and providing a vehicle for more rapid advancement in sporting performance.
Donnelley(1987) studied particular areas within sport that have quickly come to realise the value of computer technology. He highlighted the following facets within the sporting arena:
* Administration and management.
* Fitness testing.
* Simulation of play.
* Technique analysis.
* Performance monitoring.
* Film analysis, this involves computer animated viewing, with, for example, frame by frame analysis of movement.
The prominent thrust linking the interest in computing and sport has been driven by the commercial sector. With a substantial increase in funding from this sector, one finds fitness and health machines, that monitor user activity, at the front end of technological development. These machines are used to display statistical data on television screens across the world via the Internet, and are common place on the media networks. Dramatic price reduction in software and hardware have resulted in more wide spread access to the above facets of sport for athletes, researchers and students alike (Sharp, 1996).
2.3 CASE STUDY ON CURRENT USAGE OF COMPUTERS IN SPORTS SCIENCE
Sharp (1996) explored the extent of technological developments on the computing front and their impact on sports science in the United Kingdom. One of his aims was to provide a benchmark for future comparison. This in time would, therefore, provide evidence for the substantial growth in the use of technology in the sports science arena. A sample of ninety-five members of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) was taken. The study used a questionnaire as its primary method of collecting data. Fifty BASES members replied, 42% of these sports scientist use computers at work. This is likely to be an underestimate considering the fact that not all the questionnaires were returned. The software packages used by these sports scientists provided the most clear indication of the extent to which computer technology was used. Of the 40 members who used computers, six indicated that it was for administrative purposes only. The rest all used advanced applications of some sort. Of these, 69% of the software packages were commercial in origin. Members were involved in sport psychology, exercise science and biomechanics and each had particular uses for their software, these were broken down as follows:
* Sport psychologists used software developed for the following: reaction time, behaviour analysis, psychometric testing, mental imagery, selective attention and biofeedback.
* In exercise science the focus was on anaerobic and aerobic capacity, heart rate analysis, dietary analysis, sub maximal and maximal testing, isokinetic and isometric strength, fitness testing, exercise prescription, lifestyle knowledge and various anthropometric and body composition variables.
* In biomechanics the various programmes were connected with electromyography analysis, three dimensional(3D) and two dimensional(2D) kinematics analysis, force plate monitoring, data logging, isokinetic dynamometer assessment on and off-line recording and digitisation of kinematic data and the analysis if kinetic variables. Most of the software was commercial in origin although some members developed their own software.
Sharp (1996) stated that when considering the fact that the group surveyed is probably smaller than the overall number who use computers in their work, it is therefore not unreasonable to assume that the use of computers in sport science is substantial. It is clear from Sharp's (1996) findings above that there is a clearly depicted area within sports science in which computers are used as a vehicle to increase productivity and advance work.
Most software was found to serve in a dual capacity, both to aid in research, and in the process of teaching and learning. Sharp (1996) did however find the most frequent area of use to be in exercise science and physiology. This is not surprising when considering the popularity associated with exercise, fitness and exercise prescription. Following up on this fitness trend by well marketed concepts and presentation of information provides an excellent opportunity for profit seeking educators.
Exercise, of course, lends itself to objective and quantifiable measurement and is therefore almost tailor make to computer application. The current focus on exercise health within Western culture is also one which has attracted great commercial interest in recent times and their may be a further reason why computer software is well developed in this area. From the resources studied it becomes more and more noticeable how many sports related companies have WWW and e-mail addresses on the Internet. For example, in the Journal of Physical Education Recreation and Dance (JOPERD) there were ten references to e-mail address and one to a web site (JOPERD, 1996). This trend is followed in publications such as SA Sports Illustrated, most newspapers and nearly all computer based magazines.
Sport psychology although not readily lending itself to the objective scrutiny of a computer application does seem to have a big base in teaching and the spread of information. Biomechanics is a potentially rich area for development, with the increasing influence of multimedia technology, compact disc input, interactive video and communication of these through the Internet the opportunity for effective growth is phenomenal (Sharp, 1996).
Sharp's (1996) survey did uncover a clear demand for improved communication and sharing of information. He found that many people devote inordinate time to producing software that already exists. The days of 'reinventing the wheel' are now over and with the advent of the Internet, the use of e-mail and file transfer allows this sharing of information to take place. Sharp's (1996) extension of the survey is to collate a database of current applications/users and contact organisations. This resource would be ideally suited to being placed on the web and would allow further sharing of resources and ideas.
Moore (1981) suggested that computers have a vast potential for making exercise physiology and biomechanics more cost effective and, with the use of the Internet make it more accessible to the fitness conscious public.
The administrative and knowledge sharing benefits of the Internet mentioned above are obvious. However, one needs to consider the broader impact of the Internet, it does not require any physical exertion per se for participation and success, this concept has many repercussions. With the increasing influence of the Internet we find more and more inactive desk ridden employees and students. For physical educators this is both an opportunity, and a threat, one may for example be able to implement programmes whereby the physically inactive could participate in much needed, and indeed wanted exercise. This could provide employment opportunities and an important source of revenue for physical educators. On the other hand, we may be developing a culture where physical prowess and exercise is devalued. Social norms that dictate the benefits of exercise and even sports participation are lost. Already in the United States children are spending more and more time in front of the television or playing computer games: This is a threat both to them, and to the health of society at large. Today it seems that part of our nation building effort includes the development and growth of coach potatoes and nintendo experts (Kay, 1995).
Another aspect to consider, especially as educators of the new South Africa is the level of penetration when teaching via the Internet to our target groups. Through the Internet we may well reach thousands of people on a global basis, but more important is the degree to which we can help those in our own country. The inhibitive cost of gaining access to the Internet is one factor, and the justification of ones own capital outlay is another (Reinholdt, 1995). South Africans who may benefit most from the ability to work and study at home do not have the financial backup to purchase the required equipment. At a start off purchase price of approximately R5000 for a computer, modem and telephone, this is understandable. Indeed many in this country do not even have access to a telephone. However, as history has proved, the solution to this problem may be to go ahead with the development and purchasing of hardware, in the hope that it will be passed from top down and will in the end be cheaper and more accessible to those who cannot afford the initial expense (Reinhardt, 1995).
Beyond all of the hype and rhetoric surrounding interactivity in education, there is a solid backdrop of empirical analysis to support the positive nature of interactive learning. Simply put, students of all ages learn better when they are actively engaged in a process, whether that process comes in the form of a sophisticated multimedia package or a low-tech classroom debate on current events. Over the years, social scientists and education researchers have attempted with reasonable success to debunk the traditional notion of the passive classroom environment. But considering the nature of that notion, one teacher lecturing to a large class, encouraging information absorption and regurgitation, and finally assessing the students by a series of simplistic standardised tests. It is not difficult to recognise that the old ways of teaching and learning need some serious restructuring. In order for today's youth to become competitive in tomorrow's marketplace, yesterday's pedagogical methodology is no longer enough (http://edweb.cnid.org/effects.html).
3. THE IMPACT OF THE INTERNET ON VARIOUS FACETS OF EDUCATION
3.1 THE IMPACT ON EDUCATION AS A WHOLE
With the use of the Internet in Physical Education, the impact on teaching and learning will be profound. Probably one of the most pervasive issues is whether the Internet will in fact replace existing teachers, or whether it will be simply another tool available for them to use. Physical educators are particularly safe in their jobs however, because as yet it is difficult for networked computers to compete with the intuitive skill of a physical educator. One of the golden rules to implementing computer technology in education is the following: "Computers should be used to enhance, not replace, the teacher and supplement, not supplant, traditional teaching methods. Corollary: Computers should be used for the things they are good at, and people should be used for the things they are good at" (Reinhardt, 1995, pp 70).
In the commercial arena working from home is becoming increasingly popular, whether this trend will be followed to the same extent in education is yet to be seen, but according to current research it is most probable (Reinhardt, 1995). Learning on the Internet offers a free and varied choice of subject matter, the opportunity to work from home and a reduced need for supervision. As a result, teaching as we know it may change dramatically. Issues such as the motivation of students to study without supervision, socialisation needs, and most importantly the impact on the needs for physical exercise will need to be considered. In fact Papert (1995) stated that in the past, education adapted the mind to a very restricted set of available media and in the future it will adapt media to serve the needs and tastes of each individual mind.
Tectonic shifts in computer based or assisted teaching mirror those occurring throughout the computer industry, for instance, away from centralise host based systems to a networked distributed model. They also echo a new way of thinking in education theory: Instead of a one way information flow typified by broadcast television or a teacher addressing a group of passive students new teaching techniques are two way, collaborative and interdisciplinary (Reinhardt, 199, pp 53).
Reaping the benefits of computers first requires extensive teacher training, new curricula materials and most importantly changes to educational models. Modern educational concepts, derived from the work of scholars such as Jean Piaget, Seymour Papert and Lev Vygotsky emphasise individualised hands on learning, teamwork and the guided discovery of information. All these concepts are not only well suited to technology assistance but are nearly impossible to effect without computers. Learning therefore needs to be tailored to the individual student (Kay, 1995).
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3.2 THE IMPACT ON THE LEARNER
Learning through interaction with a computer has many advantages. The "electronic mentor" as it where, can give the learner individual attention, they will watch out for students and let them learn without fear of embarrassment. Perfecting technique may become far easier with the use of networked computers. It is interesting to note that this is a reversal of today's educational model where a teacher, or expert, addresses a whole group of people, it is therefore possible to have one student supported by hundreds of built in teachers or experts. The computer also enables self paced learning.
Recent research now suggests what many educators have claimed for years - some students just are not comfortable with talking in class. On-line discussions, on the other hand, are easier for some, since the form of communication changes from one that is interpersonal, live and in class to one that is cyberpersonal, over e-mail and web forms for example. And because conversation is on-line, it can be automatically catalogued and presented by the student as part of his/her "processfolio." Good "old fashion" class discussion will not, and should not vanish with the advent of on-line class forums, but allowing students to work with each other and learn from each other will open the minds of many students who previously would not voluntarily open their mouths. Physical educators could guide those students who are self conscious, quiet or otherwise difficult to communicate with through the aforementioned communication forums. More private issues can be discussed, such as diet plans, acne, weight problems, effects of exercise on pregnancy and so on, all aided by the increased sense of anonymity (http://edweb.cnid.org/effects.html, 1996).
One of the factors that may have the greatest impact on teaching and learning in Physical Education is the re-implementation of the apprenticeship model. Students can use computers to simulate real life situations and together with an on-line expert computer mentor may able to simulate and analyse game techniques and tactical play. Colour images of athletes, sport techniques, equipment, anatomy and physiology can all be scanned on to a server that can support many students. These students can then access this information without the need to search for hours in a library or wade through boring black and white diagrams in textbooks (Kay, 1995). Romiszowski (1988) talks about the birth of role playing games, ranging from replaying in typical sports situations all the way to business salesroom simulations. It allows special training exercises for psychomotor skills or understanding of complex problems. Computer based models can reproduce the effects of certain decisions and therefore allow sporting technique or game play to be effectively analysed and improved upon.
The Student Parents Association's report on the effectiveness of technology in schools, 1990-1994, gave a summary of 133 studies and found that educational technology can:-
* boost student achievement
* improve attitude and self concept
* enhance the quality of student teacher relationships
(Reinhardt, 1995, pp 52).
In his article Reinhardt (1995) went further to say that computers are amazingly patient teachers and with correct use they can spur creative thinking, promote enterprise and wet curiosity.
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3.3 THE IMPACT ON THE TEACHER
"Making it easier to prepare materials means teachers can focus on explaining information instead of conveying information" says Robert Cavalier, a senior faculty consultant at the Centre for the Advancement of Applied Ethics at Carnegie Mellon University (Reinhardt, 1995, pp 54). For teachers, computers are now an indispensable aid to preparing course materials. The use of word processing, desktop publishing, presentation or as a means of accessing far-flung resources. Executive director of the American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness(AAPHERD). Commented as follows on the influence of the Internet on Physical Education and teaching:
My suspicion is that the Internet per se is too new to have much research base for its effect...positive or negative. I suggest one considers the effect of computer use on lifestyles, i.e. sedentary vs. active, changes, etc. I know, when I went from a university teaching position to this association, management position, not only did my lifestyle change, using the computer so much for communications I was much more tied to my work station and less active in the usual sense, i.e. getting up to go talk to someone, etc. The computer is much more engaging, especially the Internet making staying at your desk more magnetic.
Seaman(1996)
For educators interested in hypermedia technology, the combination of presentation in the form of the WWW, and critique in the form of mailing lists and e-mail can be used successfully in a variety of ways. For instance, a Physical Education teacher may organise a web site which includes all class lectures, frequently asked questions, and multimedia presentations of anatomy, technique analysis, demonstrations which may utilise text, graphics, even audio. With the inclusion of a mailing list, students may automatically add information to that site, whether it be additional questions, project reports, essays, etc. This arrangement efficiently stores important class information and organises it to allow easy access.
Teachers on the Internet will tend to become more like coaches, while students are free to discover knowledge and technique on their own. There is more information about topics these days than anybody can absorb in any one time, so teachers have to rely on technology to help guide themselves and their students through relevant resources (Eugene, 1996).
Another facet to consider in the possibility of addressing what is know as multiple intelligence. Gardener (1996) identified seven intelligence's that included the following:
* Logical mathematical intelligence
* Linguistic intelligence
* Musical intelligence
* Spatial intelligence
* Bodily Kinaesthetic intelligence
* Inter personal intelligence
* Intrapersonal intelligence
Gardener (1996) maintains that every one has a dominant and a secondary intelligence, and each person has a specific style of learning . "If this doesn't conform to the dominant teaching style in the classroom then the individuals are at a disadvantage unless they can compensate with a secondary learning style" (Gardener, 1996, pp 3). Successful teaching must allow for situations that will reinforce and affirm the different ways in which children learn. Promoting the use of manipulation of objects and actual experience, that is moving, touching and doing are an integral part of successful learning programmes. The Internet, through its interactive and virtually real nature can provide these opportunities. It can simulate a wide variety of real life situations and even go beyond the real life limits and allow children to make mistakes. It therefore provides a vehicle for kinaesthetically and spatially empowered learners to develop to their maximum potential (Gardener, 1996).
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3.4 THE IMPACT ON CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development is generally known to be an inefficient process. Using collaborative software will however allow faculty staff, on the same campus or in the same school to work amongst themselves and, through the WWW, with other educationalists throughout the world. With the use of the Internet there is a much shorter lag time between distribution and the utilisation of information and therefore the bottleneck effect of the past can be to a large extent resolved (Kay, 1995).
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3.5 POSSIBLE THREATS
Although it appears that the opportunities the Internet can provide far outweigh the disadvantages, if one looks closer at the possible impact this education medium may have on children and their development, or impairment thereof, one realises that it warrants closer study. The anarchic nature of the Internet is self evident, pornography and other degradative material abound, terrorists, and underground dealers have been using the net for longer than we have and are far more familiar with its manipulative nature. To expose children, unabated and unrestricted, to this mass media may go against the very essence of educational pedagogy.
Oettinger (1969) puts the relationship between technology and education into a clear perspective:
A number of facile one dimensional views confront the scholar who seeks to do research in this area. In one such view, technology is an unalloyed blessing that promises an end to human drudgery and a solution to our social problems. Another view is that technology is an autonomous force that is destroying human values. Not surprisingly, these same views reflect what is currently being said about educational technology: that computers can be the salvation of education, or that they will displace teachers and turn children into robots.
(Oettinger, 1969, pp 169.)
Oettinger (1969) goes on to say that contemporary instructional technology can lead to an genuine improvements in education, provided it is not force fed, oversold, and/or prematurely applied.
"Globally networked, easy to use computers can enhance learning, but only within an educational environment that encourages students to question facts and seek challenges" (Kay, 1991, pp 148). Students are taught superficially about great discoveries instead of being helped to learn deeply for themselves (Kay, 1991). "Instant access to all the worlds information may have the opposite effect from that which is hoped: students will become numb instead on enlightened" (Kay, 1991, pp 148). One point of view is that education is seen as a bitter pill and that can only be made palatable with a little sugar-coating, now possible with the computer age.
Learning on computers may in fact make thinks a little too easy. Difficulty needs to sought out, as a spur to delving more deeply into a problem. An educational system that tries to make everything easy and pleasurable will prevent much important learning from happening (Kay, 1991.) Kay states that, "it is not what is in front of us that is important, whether it be books, television or computers, but what gets in to our heads and the reason why we want to learn it."
Users of media need to be aware, too, that technology often forces us to choose between quality and convenience. Compare the emotions evoked by great paintings and illuminated manuscripts with those evoked by excellent photographs of the originals, the feelings are quite different. For the majority of people who cannot make comparisons directly there is an understandable tendency to accept the substation although nothing was lost. Recognition is therefore the highest act to which children are asked to aspire (Kay, 1991). This is, of course, an unwanted side effect and one that can affect Physical Education. If students tend to elude exercise or the full evaluation of their movement or technique, there will be similar tendency to accept the situation instead of improving upon it.
Another issue to consider is the presentation of information in cyber-documents. Instead of long essays on a given topics one finds pictures and "bumper sticker" sentences that lead one to explore the various links. This leads to a fragmented and subjective representation of information. Although it may look more interesting, it does not fully or at least holistically represent the topic involved (Kay, 1991).
Knowing where to begin, what to look for, and what to ignore can be a daunting task. For example, when using a search engine, after typing in "education technology," Carnegie Mellon University's Lycos Server will literally search out every known document on the WWW which uses whatever word you're looking for. So the problem, then, is knowing how to sort through the one thousand or more responses the worm might find in its initial search. The web will begin to appear as a world-wide Library Catalogue, the books that are available have been created by students, teachers, and anyone else who has something to say. This highlights the problem of the Internet as an effective resource tool, the fact that the resources are available is irrelevant, what is important, and problematic, is finding the resources with relevant information.
Bower (1988) reflects on the computer the way it mirrors our twentieth country technocratic mind set. He argues that:
Its use reinforces and strengthens our historical-cultural view of knowledge as power, as the harbinger of progress, and our view of the individual as autonomous and self-directed." He claims that it is this same mindset that has "created a world of serious imbalance and cataclysmic nuclear threat, as well as the breakdown on symbolic process and a loss of sense of community.
(Bower, 1988, pp 7).
Bower (1988) is of the opinion that the cultural practise of "segmenting experience into discrete components...and technologically mastering that component part." He believes that with the increasing influence on studying "discreet entities" we ignore the fact that it is an integral part of a complex ecology that includes both the natural and cultural environment (Bower, 1988). If one ignores the question of what kind of future we are progressing toward, and whether the classroom will be a microcosm of society at large. Bower (1988) also introduces the concept of the environmental impact of the computer age, one of the great ironies in human history is that the human mind set that has caused such rapid change has also been responsible for pillaging the environment to an extent that its life sustaining process are being threatened (Bower, 1988). It is therefore felt that a holistic approach to education technology is imperative. Education of the future should endeavour to make those aware of the environmental impact of the equipment they are using and the consequences of ignoring the damage. As mentioned earlier neglect of ones own body and that of the earth has similarities which need to be urgently addressed in some form. As physical educators it will be part of ones job to promote this awareness.
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4.5 THE POSSIBLE IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
The changing nature of companies and the work they do, especially with large scale down sizing and the shift to an information-based economy, is requiring owners to be more flexible and better trained, especially in the use of technology. As an Education department it is most important to proved these skills to students. Students will, in the future need to be empowered with a different set of skills.
Little or no information was obtainable on this topic, it is however an important facet to consider. Perhaps with adequate preparation and teacher training, physical educators may in fact open doors that were previously unavailable without the use of the Internet. The Internet certainly provides an important bulletin board for employment opportunities available. On a broader scale, the impact of such rapid growth in communications technology will certainly have a profound effect on the value of exercise and exercise tutors. Whether this will be to a physical educators benefit is yet to be seen and will hopefully be covered in more detail in subsequent texts.
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4. PHYSICAL EDUCATION'S HOME PAGE.
4.1 A PIECE OF REAL ESTATE ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB
In an attempt to demonstrate some of the possible uses of the Internet for the Physical Education Department at the University of the Witwatersrand a home page on the WWW has been constructed. Conceptually this page is like the departments address on the Internet. For example, if people had to search for the Physical Education department on the WWW, they would type in "Physical, Education, Witwatersrand" in one of the many search engines and they would find our home page. A piece of real estate in cyberspace if you like. The page contains pictures, contact numbers, chat facilities, and most importantly, links to further resources. The home page functions both as a representation of the department, a resource tool and a marketing tool.
The page is found at http://www.geocities.com/colosseum/3292
and an example is to be found in the appendix.
This home page, in essence, is a practical application that demonstrates one of the possible uses of the Internet in Physical Education. The page represents the advantages talked about in the preceding text and gives a generic example of what can be done for a department by using the Internet. It also has a practical use, and it is hoped that it will provide a common communications and resource platform for past and present students.
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4.2. THE TOOLS NEEDED TO ACCESS THE INTERNET
One of the main stumbling blocks to making the Internet an effective teaching tool is access to the very facilities that make its use possible. As mentioned earlier very few people have actually used the Internet. In the past select groups, generally those in universities, have made use of it for research programmes and personal communications. To gain the required penetration levels into schools, both rural and urban to make the Internet an effective education tool rather than a contributing sideline will take much investment and the required infrastructure.
After consulting the sales columns of various personal computer magazines, the costs of the basic tools needed to access the Internet were found to amount to approximately R10 000 and included the following: computer(R4000), modem(R600), monthly subscription(R80) and telephone bill (R50-R300). For a school or educational institution the added cost of networking must be considered. To connect ten computers in one room for example the cost of cabling and network cards can be upwards of R5000.
The following paragraph, obtained from the WWW, pertains to schools gaining access to the Internet and lends hope to the fact that with more interest from the Government and the commercial sector increased access will be possible. Above all else, institutional access to the Internet must increase dramatically. Though many schools are lucky enough to have formed partnerships with universities and local business in order to gain access (and still others have received networking grants or employ persistent technophiles as educators), the overwhelming majority of schools lack the hardware needed just to get connected in the first place. And while policy makers and politicians argue how to best finance schools for technology development, it is still possible for many schools to get started.
(http://edweb.cnidr.org/web.future.html, 1996)
Probably one of the most influential factors at work that is changing the common opinion of teachers toward educational technology, is a fundamental paradigm shift in the adoption of computers in the classroom. Originally, pressure to implement technology in the classroom came from a district level and, as mentioned above, from technology specialists who tried to push it into the classroom. Teachers felt that there was not enough there to justify the cost. Now however, falling prices and the vast improvement in learning materials available from the commercial sector is turning this around. Teachers now want the new technology, this shift to bottom up adoption is having a massive impact on the industry and it lends to credence to the trend which shows the Internet and its subsidiary tools to become an ever growing force on education (Kay, 1995).
One common thread linking schools, colleges, and corporations is that all are looking for ways to improve education's return on investment. They all need to use networked computers to reduce costs. With the appropriate use of technology retention rates can be boosted, boredom reduced and in many cases, the costs cut. The combined influence of the aforementioned sectors should go long way to justify the costs involved by ensuring maximum return on investment (Kay, 1995).
5. THE FUTURE: CONCEPTS, IDEAS AND OPPORTUNITIES.
One of the most exiting facets of this topic would be to consider what lies ahead of us in the future. The very nature of the Internet is such that it is future orientated, and one of its prime goals is its own perpetuation and development. With the continuos upgrading and striving for improvement by all those who use the Internet, there lies enormous scope for what technology will soon provide. It is believed that the developments may run away with us, it is already virtually impossible simply keeping abreast with current developments. In the last chapter the increased use of technology in sport and its greater impact on our lives will be discussed (Ellsworth, 1994).
Kay (1991) aptly puts the future into perspective:
Ten years from now powerful, intimate computers will be connected to inter linked networks that span the globe more comprehensively than telephones do today. Initially computers will be reactive, like a musical instrument. Soon they will take initiatives as well, behaving like a personal assistant. Computers can be fitted to all the senses, with cybergloves, microphones for sound, television cameras to recognise and transmit facial expressions, headsets for virtual reality. The surface of playing surfaces, sports equipment can be felt and even game plays can be simulated as if your are really there. These can be also be interfaced between groups of people.
(Kay, 1991, pp 147).
If one draws an analogy to the "Star Trek syndrome," where all of the hi-tech gadgets the writers dreamt up of years ago, are now reality, it seems fair to assume that ideas being thrown around at this time, will also soon become reality. In other words, what we dream of now in education, may soon become the norm. Here are some of the ideas on the workbench at the moment:
* 3D Virtual reality simulation where real life game play is possible.
* Step by step analysis of a particular sports movement and analysis of advanced technique by a large group of people across the world.
* Virtual exercise where a remote host, sport scientist or trainer for example, regulates the resistance of the apparatus you are currently working on to enhance your training experience.
* The promotion of health and wellness on a global basis, whereby all information on diet, training programmes and the advantages of living a healthy lifestyle is widely available.
* Well known global research programmes in which all can participate in.
* Video/telephone calls across the Internet.
* Video conferencing for Physical Educators with practical demonstration on technique.
* Coaching across the Internet to a potentially huge market, using the means of video transmission technology.
(Ellsworth, 1994)
However, on a more down to earth note, the possibilities the Internet provides in the immediate future could be as follows:
* Set up a post graduate communications system whereby post graduates share their experience and advice with undergraduate students.
* Improving on a departmental home page where others can visit and learn about the department, this also fulfils a marketing role which is becoming increasingly important in a rapidly expanding cyberspace.
* Create and extensions to various research programmes whereby underprivileged students have access to our resources, advice and teaching through the Internet
* Publish research and receive critical comment. Initially this could be done by publishing the final year thesis/literature reviews of a department.
* Start off newsgroups and mailing lists for the various subjects and projects within a department. These groups could include information such as course outlines, timetables, due dates, return dates, extensions, happenings and tutorials.
Updating these projects could be part of an undergraduate project, where these students are responsible for the upkeep of the home page with relevant material and making sure international correspondence is proficiently dealt with.
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6. CONCLUSION
In this literature an attempt was made to provide an overview of the resources and opportunities available to Physical Education departments and to physical educators at large with use of the Internet. Although there has been limited amounts of literature directly on the topic of Physical Education on the Internet, there has been a great deal of information pertaining to education in general and the influence of the Internet. Bridging this gap required both experience on the Internet and the generalisation of the aforesaid material to Physical Education. With the help of the article by Sharp(1996) and that of Papert(1995) this generalisation is believed to be a true reflection of the current state of affairs.
In the word's of H.G. Wells, "Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe." (Morphet and Jesser, 1969, pp 3). Keeping education ahead of the race will allow us an appropriate degree of control over technology, otherwise it will surely control us. Kay (1991) stated that "wonderful learning can take place without computers or even paper. But once the teachers and children are enfranchised as explorers, computers, like pianos, can serve as powerful amplifiers, extending the reach and depth of the learners." The propagation of knowledge and health is undoubtedly one of the healthiest injections a spawning society can enjoy, the use of the Internet as a tool to initiate and provide this resource can benefit all involved.
In conclusion, this review has shown that computers can go beyond static representations that, at best, can deliver sprightly upright simulations that portray all variables and conflicting theories. Computers are becoming intuitive, with their model building and simulating capabilities they can sort through data given certain parameters and come up with various solutions, for example sports moves, tactical plays, and complex training programmes. If the personally owned book was the main shaper of the Renaissance, then the pervasively networked computer could shape humans who are healthy and objective sceptics from an early age. When enough people change modern culture will again be transformed as it was in the renaissance. However as with all change and especially in a county as diverse and divided as ours its seems that many will be left behind and be much poorer for it. Can we as Physical Educators afford to ignore the dawning of the computer age, and can we ignore the fact that many will miss it? (Kay, 1991).
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7. REFERENCE LIST
7.1 LITERARY RESOURCES
1) BORK A. (1987). Learning with Personal Computers. New York: Harper and Row.
2) BRODIE D.S., THORNHILL J.J. (1983). Microcomputing in Sport and Physical Education. Wakefiled Yorkshire: Lepus Books. In: Sharp B. (1996). The Use of Computers in Sport
Science. British Journal of Educational Technology. 27(1): 25-32.
3) BOWERS C.A. (1988). The Cultural Dimensions of Educational Computing. New York:
Teachers College Press.
4) DONNELY J.E. (1990). Using Microcomputers in Physical Education and the Sports Sciences.
Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics. In: Sharp B. (1996). The Use of Computers in Sport
Science. British Journal of Educational Technology. 27(1): 25-32.
5) ELLSWORTH J.H. (1994). Education on the Internet. USA: Sam's Publishing.
6) ERICSSON L. Ericsson Communications. 4(1): 39. Sweden: Ericsson Publications.
7) EUGINE E. (1996). Personal Communication.
8) GARDNER H. (1996). Multiple Intelligence. Femina. March issue.
9) Journal of Physical Education and Dance. 67(3).
10) KAY A. (1991). The Computer in the 21st Century. Computers, Networks and Education. No
further details available.
11) KAY A. (1995). Computers, Networks and Education. Scientific American. The Computer in
the 21st Century. Special Issue: 148-156.
12) MOORE M. (1981). Computerisation of Sports Medicine. Physician and Sports Medicine. 9(1):
118-123. In: Sharp B. (1996). The Use of Computers in Sport Science. British Journal of
Educational Technology. 27(1): 25-32.
13) MORPHET L., JESSER L. (1969). Designing Education for the Future. New York: Citation
Press.
14) PAPERT S. (1993). Obsolete skill set: The three R's. Wired 1.2 May/June : 48-49. No further
details available.
15) PAPERT S. (1980). Public Statement. In: Bowers C.A. (1988). The Cultural Dimensions of
Educational Computing. New York: Teachers College Press.
16) Personal Computing. (1996). Classifieds. March issue.
17) PITT M. (1996). The Use of Electronic Mail in Undergraduate Teaching. British Journal of
Educational Technology. 27(1): 45-50. Coventry UK: National Council for Educational
Technology.
18) RANDALL N. (1994). Teach yourself the Internet. Indiana: Sams Publishing.
19) REINHARDT A. (1995). New Ways to Learn. Byte. 20(3): 50 -70.
20) ROMISZOWSKI A.J. (1988). The Selection and Use of Instructional Media. London: Kogan
Page.
21) SHARP B. (1996). The Use of Computers in Sport Science. British Journal of Educational
Technology. 27(1): 25-32.
22) SEAMAN E. (1996). Personal Communication.
7.2 INTERNET RESOURCES
7.2.1 WORLD WIDE WEB
1) http://www.geocities.com Creating new pages/societies on the Internet.
2) http://www.ai.mit.edu/pubs.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology, excellent resource centre.
3) http://casr.www.media.mit.edu/groups/casr/papert.html Seymour Paperts research on schools of
the future.
5) http://www.yahoo.com/Education/Universities/ Search page for universities around the globe.
6) http://edweb.cnid.org/effects.html Education Web.
7.2.2 MAILING LISTS
GLEASON SACKMAN Net Happenings list, used to find educational resources.
CNEDUC-L Computer Networking Education Discussion List.
ASHE-L Association for the Study of Higher Education Discussion
C-EDRES Educational Resources on the Internet
CONTED The International Journal of Continuing Education Practice
DOAC-HSC Academic Computing at Health Science Centres
EDUTEL Education and information technologies
H-INFOED Education for Health Information & Library Wk
HYPEREDU Hypertext in education.
ISCPES International Society for Comparative Physical Education & Dance
WISHPERD Women in Sport, Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
7.2.3 NEWSGROUPS
alt.ed.distance
alt.education.research
edu.bjet.uk
can.schoolnet.physed
k12.ed.health-pe
misc.education.multimedia
news:za.schools
pdaxs.issues. education
za.edu.comp
8. APPENDICES
8.1 PHYSICAL EDUCATION'S HOME PAGE.
8.2 SLIDE PRESENTATION
Not even the most repressive regime can stop human beings from finding ways of communicating and obtaining access to information. This applies in equal measure to the information revolution sweeping the globe. No one can roll it back. It has the potential to open communications across all geographical and cultural divides.
(Ericsson, 1995.)
