As we evolve into an age of 'post-modern technology', it is apparent that scientific progression has ensured it's status as an essential element to every structure of society. These cognitive advances are not separated from the relevance of the body, illustrating the need for the development of the 'holistic' individual, and consequently Physical Education is becoming the focus of much debated research regarding it's purpose in the present school curriculum.
Current literary perspectives emphasise the need for health as the core of the Physical Education curriculum, suggesting that it is the responsibility of the Physical Educator to provide an appropriate basis of knowledge whereby an informed pupil can successfully adapt to an ever-evolving world. These views however, are held in contention, and it is the belief of certain theorists that such a move would hinder the natural development of the child, as health forms an important component of this faculty but should not overshadow other equally important elements of the curriculum by becoming the core of it, particularly in elementary schooling.
This paper will attempt to resolve this debate with an inquiry into the focus of health in the proposed South African Physical Education Curriculum, as it is vital that we evaluate our past and establish an appropriate plan for the future if it is to realise it's potential in the years ahead (Corbin, 1993). In order to appraise this issue the paper will analyse four areas crucial to curriculum formulation: The objectives of the discipline; current perspectives on the 'necessary changes' needed in the discipline; the proposed curriculum in terms of the present curriculum; and an inquiry into these proposed changes. It is vital that the primary objectives of Physical Education are identified in order to understand it's intrinsic value and purpose as a subject in the school curriculum. It is only from an understanding of it's objectives that substantiated conclusions can be drawn about the appropriateness of health as the core of Physical Education. The paper will conclude it's appraisal with an hypothesis, outlining the progressive need for health in the curriculum according to the natural development of the child.
Being physically educated involves the understanding and appreciation of a well executed movement, as well as experiencing the "fun and freedom" of any movement, regardless of how well it is done (Mueller, 1990, pp 100). Hensley et. al. defines physical activity as any movement by the body which is produced by skeletal muscle and which results in energy expenditure (1993). As an objective of physical education, these two definitions illustrate the different methodological approaches found in the gymnasium, as Mueller would assert that being physically educated is a continuous process, whereas Hensley et. al. would maintain that it is a point at which one arrives. Presently, the ideological interpretation of the physical education objective is diverse, and this has resulted in practises of a dichotomous nature, which is why it is critical that the definition is refined in order to ensure a common objective that can be implemented in the national curriculum.
For many professional educators reform is seen as a permanent part of the educational landscape (Siedentop, 1992), and consequently curriculum is viewed by many practitioners as a framework within which prevalent theoretical models can be implemented as dictated by science. In many instances the content of the curriculum is ignored. However, this paper will argue that although this may suffice for the professional educator, in the schooling environment the physical educator needs clearly defined objectives within the format of the curriculum whereby they can employ an appropriate methodology.
As the 21st century approaches, it has become increasingly clear that physical education can be a major contributor to the future of society through prevention. Feingold therefore emphasises the mind-body relationship and the need for the holistic perspective (1994).
"As a part of the educational realm, our goal is to foster change and growth in our students" (Mueller, 1990, pp 100), and as physical educators the question must be asked as to the nature of this form, and the appropriate changes that need to be made. This paper will appraise this issue in terms of the relevance of health in the proposed physical education curriculum, and to the extent that a holistic approach should be incorporated into this faculty of schooling.
2. PHYSICAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM
2.1 THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION OBJECTIVES
Although there has been no shortage of creative thinking when implementing programmes in physical education, there has been little change concerning the practicalities of curriculum formation (Kirk, 1993). The organisational approach to curriculum structures the discipline according to definitions which fragment it rather than define it. An example of this can be found in the United States, where the physically educated person as defined by the NASPE is one who "has learned how to learn new skills", and who has the knowledge to "design safe, personal fitness programmes in accordance with principles of training and conditioning" (Franck, 1991). Definitions of this nature specify a desired result rather than clarify the objective process that physical education should embody. This chapter will attempt to define the value of physical education objectives, and the need to define the process in order to ensure that an appropriate methodology can be carried out in the gymnasium.
Corben (1993) stresses that physical education is neither a discipline nor a profession, but rather a field which consists of disciplines and professions. Common goals are the key to good practise, and once defined, the educator can effectively teach the youth to be physically active, and as a result of this "good things would happen" (Watson et. al.,1994, pp 18).
If physical education is to become the "renaissance field of the twenty-first century", Corbin (1993) emphasises the need to unite around common goals, as well as the need for an appreciation of the diverse disciplines and professions which constitute this field (pp 87). We cannot be afraid of experimenting with different organisational formats, as the restructuring process would help students to achieve a greater sense of responsibility (Siedentop, 1992).
Ennis outlines the "five value theoretical perspectives" that curricular theorists have postulated for instructional settings of influence: Disciplinary mastery; self-actualisation; learning process; social reconstruction; and ecological integration (1993, pp 358). Ennis has found that physical educators tend to focus on one perspective as a singular objective for physical education, rather than incorporating all five into the process and applying them at appropriate points in accordance with the child's development. This is concerning for the methodologist, as theoretical misinterpretation results in fragmented objectives of the curriculum as a whole, whereby prioritised values distort it's holistic intention. For goal achievement to be maximised, it is critical that appropriate goal structures are incorporated into the curriculum (Grineski, 1993). As a conceptual basis for learning, goal structure has to a large extent been ignored in physical education. Grineski asserts that appropriate structures will allow for achievement across the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains which can make a valuable contribution to the child's development. He therefore emphasises the need for teachers to develop "goal-directed lessons" with the effective consideration of "singular goal structures" (pp 34).
These include the use of individual goal structures when the aim is to promote skill acquisition, the use of co-operative goal structures when the aim is to promote "social interaction" (pp 34), and competitive goal structures for those students who have mastered the necessary cognitive and motor skills. In this way students will develop the knowledge and values related to physical activity (Watson et. al., 1994).
The significance of ideological objectives in the curriculum, such as the five theoretical perspectives outlined by Ennis, is great. It is within the framework of such objective processes that the physical educator can implement appropriate models of development as outlined by Grineski.
As stated, it is from objectives of this nature that the teacher should incorporate objectives, rather than isolate them, in order to facilitate this development.
The field of physical education has much at stake as it seeks major leadership roles in the promotion of active lifestyles (Hensley et. al.,1993). It is for this reason that clearly defined objectives be established in order to ensure it's success. In this era, programmes must address the holistic needs of the individual, and can no longer be confined to the cycle of major sporting events as is often found in schools (Placek, 1984; Thomson & Jones, 1985; cited in Kirk, 1993, pp 247). For the reason of social outcomes it is therefore necessary to be aware of the values culture places on the individual (Siedentop, 1992).
2.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CURRICULUM
The quality of any physical education programme depends upon the framework of the curriculum (Sterne, 1991). It is by the curriculum that effective objectives can be conveyed, and through it that a "holistic instructional approach" can be encompassed (pp 35). Holmes (1991) points out, modern schooling deals with the child of the modern age, and will therefore challenge many people's perceptions about the underlying purpose of education. It is the belief of curricular theorists that the pupil should be equipped with the necessary skills to benefit the rewards modernistic society has to offer, and physical education undoubtedly falls into this category. Lambert and Deal (1992) outline four areas of curriculum work that needs to be clarified in order to ensure that it's significance in physical education is understood: Firstly, there needs to be a conceptual framework within which it can operate to provide a grounding from which programme decisions can be made; secondly, there needs to be an understanding of knowledge in order to conceive an appropriate facilitative guide which encapsulates the process of the curriculum; thirdly, the teacher must have the ability to incorporate these principles at the appropriate development level of the pupil; and finally, the field needs to set a vision for itself which effectively identifies the objectives of physical education in the school.
In a sense the curriculum should be a "liberating programme", as defined by Paulston (1980), as it enables groups who are competing for power to articulate their problems, dreams, and strategies (cited in Petherbridge-Hernandez, 1990, pp 41). In much the same way physical education should provide the pupil with the opportunity to achieve their potential in movement. The curriculum must define the boundaries within which the competitive nature of the individual can be expressed in terms of "skill-mastery", whilst facilitating natural development.
South African education is presently experiencing a crises, as radical change is being continuously demanded (Lee, 1990). Being at a crossroad, Physical education in South Africa has found itself with the enviable position of reforming their curriculum amidst these demands. The challenge is therefore to provide an appropriate structure whereby the greater needs of society can be fulfilled, and an effective curriculum is the key. We need to redefine our knowledge base, beliefs, and practises, and as we do, "our structures, theory and practise will become more fluid, more congruent, and most importantly, more useful to everyone" (Lambert & Deal,1992, pp 79).
3. CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON HEALTH
In the publication 'Promoting Health, Preventing Disease' in 1980, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) established the ongoing health objectives for the Nation. Symans and Gascoigne (1990) cite these goals as the aim to improve child health and foster optimal development, as well as to improve the health habits of adolescents. Given the capacity of the nations' public schools to address the public, the USDHHS singled out this agent with the responsibility of improving the health status of children. Recent studies in the field of physical education suggest that there should be a greater focus on health in all sectors of society, and like the USDHHS' initiative, the public schooling curriculum should be the primary vehicle through which it is enforced. This belief was accentuated by findings that show children who are more physically active to be less susceptible to sedentary lifestyles, as well as the development of a "coronary heart disease risk profile" (Kimiecik, 1991, pp 33).
There is an obvious need for leadership as physical and health education programmes become more comprehensive (Alterio & Lazour, 1991), and Smith and Cestaro concur that if the health objectives regarding the teaching of life skills are to be met, there needs to be a "co-ordinated effort" between schools, community groups, parents, and the children themselves (1995, pp 69).
Hutchinson et. al. (1990) outlined four general health-related fitness goals to be incorporated in a school-based curriculum they were developing: To improve children's knowledge about health and fitness; to improve general attitudes amongst children regarding health and fitness; to encourage active lifestyles at an early age; and to encourage children to be active. The belief is that active adults were once active children, and that if youngsters are encouraged to participate actively at an early age, they will develop healthy habits. Lowden (1989), citing Popper, stated that in order to learn effectively children needed an environment whereby they would be stimulated to integrate their worlds i.e. "their world of physical bodies, animate and inanimate, their world of conscious experience, feelings and perceived qualities and their world of symbolic forms, language and knowledge" (In Gildenhys et. al., 1995, pp 142). Current perspectives emphasise the need for the holistic approach in schooling, as it is through an integrated curriculum where every faculty that constitutes the child's world is considered, that the pupil will learn most effectively. In keeping with this principle, the Westgate Alternative school of Academic and Physical Excellence, located in the city of Columbus, has adopted a philosophy based on educating the "total child" (Stroot et. al., 1991). Equal emphasis is placed on the intellectual, emotional, and physical. Physical education is a key component of the programme, and plays a role in every part of the curriculum. Six integrative concepts form the core of their mission statement: Critical thinking; Physical education integration; Health; Self-concept/self-esteem; Writing process; and Lifetime learning (pp 48). Smith asserts that an element essential to human function is play (1995). It is universal, and it is "how we learn to deal with the world and our social roles in it" (Corbin, 1987; cited in Smith, pp 19).
Subsequently, certain theorists believe that play can be used by the elementary physical education teacher to enhance the skill and fitness capabilities of their students (Goc Karp et. al.,1993). One of the six reasons for exercise participation outlined by Gould and Horn (1984) was to have fun (cited in Douthitt and Harvey, 1995). Health is the result of such activities. It is the predominant impetus for a child to expend energy, and that is why physical activity, particularly in elementary education, should be enjoyed by the pupil. King (1987) has identified three types of play in elementary schools: Instrumental play, which includes maths games and writing poems; Real play, which are the activities the children engage in during school breaks; and Illicit play, which includes "unsanctioned interaction" such as whispering in class and passing notes (cited in Smith, 1995, pp 21). King believes that if teachers understand the principles of play, and the importance thereof to the development of the child, they can effectively enhance learning by incorporating it into the classroom. Consequently, a current trend in physical education is to use playground equipment to foster fitness and motor skill development (Goc Karp et. al, 1993).
This, keeping in mind the need for a focus on health. As a result of the objectives stipulated by the USDHHS (as stated in this paper), there has been a dramatic shift at school level in the United States from evaluating individual fitness levels by means of motor performance tests, to the use of health-related fitness tests (Symons and Gascoigne, 1990). These include: Aerobic (cardiorespiratory) endurance - the ability of the cardiorespiratoy system to function efficiently at moderate to high intensity over an extended period of time; Flexibility - the ability to move muscles and joints through their full range of movement; Muscular/strength endurance - the ability of muscles to produce at maximum effort, and to sustain over extended intervals of time; and Body composition - the relative percentage of fat to lean body mass (pp 60-61).
By promoting health concepts at school level, and by creating an awareness of one's own body through tests of this nature, it is hoped that the child will understand the benefits of an active lifestyle, and as a result develop healthy habits. A recent survey of adolescents in Europe suggests that programmes of this nature are vital if the youth are to be physically educated (Naul, 1995). In a ranking of leisure activities for boys aged 12, organised sport placed third, with unorganised sport ranking seventh. The first two places went to watching television and listening to music. From a health perspective girls faired somewhat worse, ranking homework, music, reading, television, socialising, housework, and spending time alone above organised sport.
The object of promoting health in schools is to ensure the holistic development of the individual, so that they will be well balanced with an equivalent emphasis being placed on the mind and the body. For this reason, physical educators should stress the positive benefits of exercise as a significant and rewarding option for those who engage in it (Kimiecik, 1991).
By the year 2000, professional health educators would have made substantial progress towards achieving their goal of being recognised as a profession independent of other closely related fields (Cissell, 1992). This is the result of an abundance of recent literature in favour of the health perspective, and the uncompromising belief of many theorists that a sound mind is no more important than a healthy body as we draw closer to the 21st century. Consequently, health is the focus of much attention in the field of physical education, and in many countries it has formed the core of it's curriculum. As stated in this chapter, Westgate is one example of many private schools who have incorporated into their curriculum the philosophy of educating the "total child". The current emphasis is on health.
4. AN INQUIRY INTO THE FOCUS ON HEALTH
4.1 CURRENT CURRICULUM AND PROPOSED CURRICULUM
The present physical education curriculum for boys, standard I-V, as defined by the Transvaal Education Department, focuses on the holistic development of the child. The objectives of the syllabus are listed as follows:
* The stimulation of growth and development
* The acquisition of basic physical fitness
* The mastering of physical recreative activities
* The inculcation of health habits
* The development of a balanced personality
* The promotion of mental health (Appendix A, pp 1)
The aim of the curriculum is to afford the pupil the chance to participate physically in various activities which "contribute towards the development of the whole man" (pp 1). Activities were selected based on the following principles: That they represent a balanced programme; that they provide for the inclusion of as many fundamental human movements as possible; that the programme shall make adequate provision for the acquisition of physical fitness; and that it should provide for the necessary continuity (pp 1-2).
The proposed physical education curriculum for secondary schools, as defined by the Johannesburg College of Education, has followed current trends and has placed a greater emphasis on health principles in the proposed syllabus.* Of the 11 principles documented, health made up six of them. They are listed as follows: - Health education should form an integrated part of physical education in the secondary education phase - In the secondary phase the needs of local communities at a given time should determine the emphasis of the subject, either on the health or the physical education aspects of the subject - Teachers must be sensitive to appreciate the multi-cultural context within which physical and health education is presented in South Africa - In the secondary phase preventative and promotive health must receive prominence in the curriculum - Physical education should play a major role in promoting health - Physical education should assist in the prevention of health problems (Appendix B, pp 1-2)
The second principle listed is the most significant, as although it is apparent that these guidelines are an attempt to condition a framework within which health can effectively be incorporated into a new syllabus, it is this principle which illustrates the degree to which current trends are to be followed. From recent literature published, there is an urgent appeal for leadership in the field of physical education, as well as the need for communication between school and community (Alterio & Lazour; Smith & Cestaro. Cited in chapter three of this paper).
The five health topics to be integrated into the physical education syllabi are listed as follows: The Human Body; Personal Health and Health Habits; Prevention of Disease resulting from a Destructive Lifestyle; Physically Challenged Individuals; and First Aid. (pp 3-4) A paper, stressing the need for health to be incorporated as an integral part of the curriculum, was sent by the Gauteng Department of Education to all Principles and Rectors of Colleges of Education (Appendix C). It reinforced the principles outlined in the proposed curriculum, and made particular reference to the primary school, calling for urgent attention in the provision and teaching of health. The idea is to create a foundation for continuity in the areas of cleanliness, healthy nutrition, healthy living, mental health, preventative health, and health awareness. (pp 1) *Please note that these are guidelines for a proposed curriculum, and is not the actual curriculum. All inferences made by this paper is on this basis, as the contents of the new curriculum has yet to be disclosed.
4.2 THE APPROPRIATENESS OF HEALTH IN THE PROPOSED CURRICULUM
The health and fitness of youth has a become a major concern to those occupying influential positions in government, medicine, research, business, and education. This is the result of parallels which have been drawn between chronic disease and inactivity amongst adults, as well as the allegations that youth are both physically inactive and unfit (Pate et. al., 1985). Given these problems, Amusa stresses the need for society to aid the youth in "attaining responsible adulthood and self governance" (1995, pp 134). Although it is assumed that the concept of health falls under the umbrella of physical education, the South African government has called for a more deliberate involvement of health in the curriculum (Miller, 1995). Consequently, the proposed curriculum illustrates the degree to which the syllabus can play a significant role in producing successful changes (Simons-Morton et. al., 1987), as it provides the pupils with the opportunity for learning something of value (Jewett & Bain, 1985).
The concern by certain theorists of this focus on health is that it would detract from other elements critical to physical education, particularly in elementary schooling where motor processes are vital to the development of the child.
The predominant question therefore being asked is whether physical education should be responsible for producing healthy individuals, and whether it should be responsible for making our youth fit. These concerns are not to question the need for an integrated approach in physical education, or to directly oppose the need for health awareness in the school as current perspectives imply, but rather to emphasise the need to clarify the aims of physical education.
Miller states that these concerns are not based on the premise that the merit of the discipline is in danger because of the proven correlation between health and physical education. She maintains that the credibility of the subject is dependant on our ability to prove to the sceptics in the educational and health field that our objectives can be accomplished (1995). She therefore set up a study to explore the relationship between the subjects experience of sport and physical education in a schooling capacity, and their attitudes towards participation in physical activity. It was found that although the majority of the students who enjoyed physical education (80%) participated in physical activity, "perceptions about the value of participation in physical activity are apparently not influenced by exposure to physical education at school level" (pp 178). While 95% of the pupils who did physical education perceived participation to be beneficial, 87% of those who did not enjoy participation also viewed it as beneficial. These findings are supported by Duncan et. al. who stated that although the benefits of exercise are well documented, "studies indicate that 41 to 51% of adults between the ages of 18 and 65 currently remain sedentary" (National Centre for Health Statistics, 1980; 1995, pp 220).
Whereas the aim of the USDHHS was to improve the health habits of the youth (stated in Chapter three), and physical education in schools was the vehicle through which this objective was to be carried out, these statistics, disturbing as they are, question the validity of these goals. It would seem that although the majority of people understand the benefits of physical activity, a large number of the population still lead sedentary lifestyles. Miller therefore proposed "that future research should further explore the psycho-social determinants of promotive health behaviour and that the findings should be acknowledged by physical and health educators to ensure that their curriculum objectives are relevant and feasible (1995, pp 182).
"For intervention purposes, if health professionals knew individuals' physical activity intentions, they would have the most important information source to predict future action" (Dzewaltowski, 1995, pp 388). Michaud and Andres (1990) outlined the recommended guidelines for physical activity which would benefit the individual. It is stated that aerobic exercise be performed at least three days per week (15 - 60 minutes per session), at 50 - 85% of maximal oxygen consumption, or alternatively at 60 - 90% of maximal heart rate. The concern is that even if physical education was implemented into the curriculum five days a week with maximum participation, "it is unlikely that fitness gains would be achieved in all health-related fitness areas" (pp 34).
Michaud and Andres support the principle of an integrated approach in the proposed curriculum (Appendix B, pp 1) with an incorporation of health-related knowledge, but the objective of giving physical education the responsibility of making the youth fit is unrealistic. Physical Education can be used as vehicle to equip the pupil with the necessary concepts of health as related to the holistic principle of the developed individual, but the responsibility of applying this knowledge in order to ensure a "fit mind" and a "fit body" ultimately lies with the pupil. Hence the need for research to uncover the motivation principles for participating in physical activity, as studies suggest that knowledge itself is insufficient.
It is, however, agreed that physical education can play a significant role in the development of the youth by incorporating an integrated approach into the curriculum. Adolescence is a time of growth and maturation (Bale et. al., 1992), and the physical education programme can be shaped to meet the continuing changing needs of the youth by addressing their mental, physical, and motor needs (Krampf, 1993).
As stated by Seliger et. al., the programme can be a suitable area to "promote a favourable influence on motor learning, physiologic and morphologic development of children" (1980; cited in Moto, 1994, pp 246). In this integrated approach, physical activity could be brought into the classroom, particularly in elementary schooling, where a "movement narrative" could be used in a developmental context to create an appropriate storyline for a topic (Clements & Oosten, 1995; p. 24).
The ultimate goal of education is one of expanding children's knowledge, and movement can be used as an effective facilitator in this process. It aids in the development of critical thinking, problem solving, and co-operation (Kirkpatrick & Buck, 1995; Cleland & Pearse, 1995). This paper would infer that this is a result of the freedom of self-expression encompassed in movement, as it is a process directly confrontational to oneself. Movement is a creative phenomenon which incorporates the bodily and mental functions of the individual. Social-well being is the ability to effectively interact and respond to one's environment (Gallahue, 1987; cited in Pote, 1995).
As a concept of health, self-confidence is an attribute of social-well being which is vital to the individual, yet the schooling system at present doesn't provide the opportunity for the most important things in life to be taught (Handy, 1995; cited in Sboros, 1996). The integrated approach as suggested by current theorists is an attempt to incorporate the world into the classroom, and therefore developmental appropriateness is critical to the curriculum (Helion & Fry, 1995). Conscious awareness should be promoted on the following levels (Lazo, 1995): - Awareness of one's physical self - Awareness of one's ethnic and cultural heritage - Awareness of oneself in relation to others; and - Awareness of oneself in relation to the global environment (pp 170) These principles "stress the need for greater integration of subject matter, greater co-operation between subdisciplines, the promotion of multi-disciplinary curricula which focus on the holistic development of the learner and the collaboration between the profession, the schools, social agencies and the community" Gildenhys et. al., 1995, pp 149).
5. CONCLUSION
5.1 HYPOTHESIS
If you look up the word "change" in any dictionary you will be struck by a wide range of definition. The concept of change is "rich in meaning" as it is often associated with learning (Langly, 1993, pp 27). As facilitators, if we want to exert an influence in the lives of our students, we need to take into consideration the many facets that constitute human behaviour as we interact with them (McHugh, 1995).
Progressing into an era of "post-modern technology", social and personal awareness has become an important aspect to the development of the holistic individual. The physical education theorists who are presently drawing up a new curriculum for South African education, face the challenge of constructing a programme which effectively represent these principles. It is for this reason that such a vast amount of literature has been published in the field of health, as it is of obvious importance to the nation as a whole that the child confronts the issue of health at an early age.
This paper has attempted to appraise current perspectives of health, the appropriateness of it's incorporation into the physical education curriculum, and the methodology by which it can reach the pupil. Watson et. al. stated that if the educator could effectively teach the youth to be physically active, "good things would happen" (1994; cited in Chapter Three).
By it's very nature, physical education implies the transference of knowledge with regard to the appreciation of one's body. Amongst other elements, physical education implies health. It is the accentuated need for an increased health awareness in society today which has demanded that physical education play a greater role in the education thereof.
This paper has attempted to define a framework, from recent studies, within which an integrated approach can be implemented into the curriculum. Physical education should be used as a vehicle whereby knowledge can be transferred to the pupil. The holistic approach must exceed the boundaries of the classroom, as it is only knowledge which has social relevance to "life" that will reach the pupil. The world in which they live, and the world in which they learn must be the same. In order to achieve this, physical education needs educators to take on a major role of leadership in order to secure effective communication between the school and community. It is through communication that physical education can continuously place itself in a social context, and it's objectives can consequently be aligned with those of society.
It is immanent that health will play a major role in physical education, and the concerns of theorists such as Michaud and Andres, and Miller must be considered. They have brought to attention the need for appropriate aims in physical education, and have effectively substantiated their concerns with relevant findings. As with prevalent theorists who are emphasising the need for an integrated approach, Miller, Michaud and Andres have supported research in favour of holistic principles in physical education. However, the programme needs definition in order to ensure that all the elements which constitute this field are incorporated.
Physical education has a significant role to play in society, and if an appropriate curriculum is formulated according to the principles cited in this paper, it will achieve it's objective.
5.2 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY
The role of the educator is to empower pupils with knowledge that they would use it to realise their potential (Alexander, 1989). The movement of ideology occurs through three levels: It is established by curricular theorists in the curriculum; It is interpreted by the teacher; and it is transferred to the pupil in the classroom. In order for a curriculum to effectively achieve it's objectives, it is important that there is "organisational support, teacher involvement, school administrative support, peer support, and in service training" (Hutchinson & Freedson, 1990, pp 56).
Very often the intention of the theorist is lost in the process. Ellsworth (1989) maintains that the predominant reason for this breakdown lies not in the process, but in the level of abstraction evident in critical pedagogy. She found that the language was often more appropriate for "philosophical debate" of human values, than for the effectiveness of classroom practises (pp 300).
It is therefore critical that the curriculum is clear and concise, with well defined objectives in order to ensure that the appropriate methodology is incorporated in the classroom. It must incorporate a "social analysis" of meaning, and cannot be based on "modernist, rationalist assumptions" (Carrim, 1995, pp 34). The physical education curriculum in South Africa needs a well developed, comprehensive, articulate theory as part of their vision to establish the role of schooling in contemporary society (Beyer, 1986). The educational theorists formulating the curriculum face a two-fold task: Firstly, to incorporate appropriate principles into the physical education programme according to well defined objectives; and secondly, to ensure that it is structured in such a way that the knowledge within it accessible to the practitioner, and consequently to the pupil.
This paper has outlined the value of education objectives, the current perspectives on health, the concerns regarding the appropriateness of health in the physical education syllabus, and the need for an integrated approach in schooling. All that now remains is for the theorist to consider the need of the pupil regarding all existing knowledge in this field, and an effective physical education curriculum which embodies the holistic individual can be incorporated into South African schools.
