1. Recitation and listening (qira'ah and sama')

Thus recitation and listening are acts of devotion and should be done consciously. Therefore, advice is given for a dignified behaviour in this context, e.g. the respectful handling of the written text, clear and correct pronounciation, short prayers before and after reading etc. Understanding happens on three levels:

1. The level of the heart. As long as a person is not familiar with Qur'anic Arabic, the understanding may happen exclusively on this level, touching directly the listener's heart.
2. The intellectual level. For this, knowledge of the language or at least a translation is necessary. For personal understanding, the Qur'an can be read in the immediate context of one's individual life experience. However, the scholarly interpretation and the implementation in theology, law etc. demands familiarity with the appropriate methodology.
3. The level of practice. The most perfect theoretical knowledge is of little use when it is not realised.

The ideal would of course be to read the Qur'an on all three levels. We are warned to avoid attitudes that impair our understanding, e.g. (according to al-Ghazzali) word-splitting, blind adherence to existing commentaries, selfish interests, hypocrisy, injustice, prejudices and all kinds of vices.

However, other things than the Qur'an are also recited and listened to by Muslims. In the immediate context of ritual prayer there are the sermons of the Friday and festival prayers as well as, at least originally, the understanding of what is said. That is why listening to the sermon is seen as an element of the respective prayer, while the ritual of the Friday prayer itself is shortened.

There is a hot debate about listening to poetry and music. The Prophet (s) said, "There can be much wisdom in poetry," while at the same time rejecting poetry praising injustice, deriding moral values and mocking at things that are sacred. Within Muslim culture there is a large treasure of religious poetry in various languages. Its place is not in the framework of ritual prayer but in special meetings e.g. at a wedding, the celebration of the birth of a child, a memorial meeting, a meeting of a sufi order etc. rather than in the usual public activities in the mosque. Here are some examples.

• Poems and songs in praise of God (hamd, Turkish ilahi). An example by Yunus Emre (Anatolia, d. 1321 C.a.):

  Together with mountains and stones I call upon you, Lord.
  Together with the birds in the morning light I call upon you, Lord.
  Together with the fish in the river, the deer in the plains,
  With a simple mind I call upon you, Lord.
  Together with Jesus in heaven, with Moses at the Burning Bush,
  Holding to a staff I call upon you, Lord.
  With Job's suffering, with Jacob's tears,
  With Muhammad's love I call upon you, Lord.
  There is the broken world, I left its ruins.
  With bare feet, with bare head I call upon you, Lord.
  With Yunus's voice, with a nightingales tongue,
  With all the faithful ones I call upon you, Lord.

• Poems and songs in praise of the Prophet Muhammad (s) like the following one from the Indian subcontinent:

  O Prophet, peace be with you. O Messenger, peace be with you.
  O Beloved One, God's peace be with you.
  Pride of Adam, pride of Eve,
  Pride of Noah and John,
  Pride of Abraham and Moses,
  Pride of Ismail and Jesus.
  O Prophet, peace be with you. O Messenger, peace be with you.
  O Beloved One, God's peace be with you.
  Bearer of the crown of mercy,
  King of both worlds,
  Traveller to God's throne,
  Vindicator of the sinners.
  O Prophet, peace be with you. O Messenger, peace be with you.
  O Beloved One, God's peace be with you ...

There are complete programmes with recitations from the Qur'an, poems, songs, supplications etc. arranged around the story of the birth or the life of the Prophet (s) that are performed on festival days like the Prophet's (s) birthday or heavenly journey or on family occasions. There are also poems and songs about other human beings who have achieved nearness to God (God's friends, awliya') including the founders of mystical traditions.

• Mystical love poems that sometimes sound ambiguous, seeming to be, at first sight, an "ordinary" love poem describing the Beloved (not just her beauty but her unattainable distance) but really meaning mystical love.
• In this context there is a rich tradition of music with a great variety of styles depending on the respective language and culture. Especially love poems are often recited, accompanied by instrumental music. Various theories of music have come into being and are used metaphorically to describe the order of existence in terms of musical harmony. In the classical period of Islam there was some research into the effects of sounds on the human psyche, and music therapy was developed and used.

As mentioned before, poetry and music are debated. Critics claim that it is a waste of time and a side track to avoid human responsibility; nowadays sometimes poetry and music is rejected categorically altogether rather than those styles that promote carelessness and aggression or are misused as a "drug", ignoring the musical tradition of Islam and all those discussions that advocated a more differentiated manner to handle those questions. In the mystical traditions, poetry and music is consciously used to inspire courage and hope, to feel harmony, to strengthen the community and to promote the love for God and our fellow human beings. There are even traditions of ritual dancing.

2. Glorification (tasbîh)

While tasbîh in modern language is more or less used as a technical term for praises said during or after the ritual prayer, in original Qur'anic language it really comprises all aspects of glorification

• with words ranging from the simple prayer thanking for our abilities and possibilities (sometimes in the form of repetition like 33 times subhanAllah, may God be glorified, 33 times al-hamdu lillah, praise be to God, 33 times Allahu akbar, God is greater) to an artful poem of praise.
• With actions unfolding and revealing our good potential, like caring for a fellow human being, acquiring and spreading knowledge, creative work etc.

In this sense, the Qur'an points out that all creatures glorify God:

Whatever is in the heavens and the earth glorifies God, the Sovereign, the Holy One, the Mighty Friend, the Wise, (Surah 62:1)

that is, consciously or unconsciously, with words or in actual life by unfolding and using their potential.

3. Supplication (du'â)

Du'â is an informal prayer or supplication. It is independent of language, ritual gestures etc. although we usually raise our hands expecting to receive, as it were, a heavenly gift. It is said in one's own word, but sometimes Muslims like to use wordings from the Qur'an or from traditions of the Prophet (s) or other Friends of God. Concerning du'a, we read in the Qur'an,

Call upon does not mean to shout or to scream. The Prophet (s) said, "God is neither hard of hearing nor far away." We are also told that God even listens to matters that are not expressed verbally.

Collections of prayers from the Qur'an and the traditions with translations and explanatory notes are very popular. These books are often arranged according to subjects. We find short prayers that are said before and after meals, when going to bed, when getting up, when leaving ones home or going in a journey, when breaking one's fast, during a thunderstorm or heavy rain, when seing the first fruits of the season, when entering and leaving the mosque, when looking into a mirror, when getting into a car or an aeroplane, when worried by disturbing thoughts, anger or fear, for protection from diseases and for healing, for inner calm and clear speech etc. There are also general supplications like the prayer for forgiveness, for the good in this world and the good in the life to come, for knowledge and wisdom and guodance. These prayers are often very short, but they can be combined with each other and/or with recitations from the Qur'an, a short sermon or similar elements according to the occasion. These are some examples.

• General prayer for forgiveness:
  My Sustainer, I have done great injustice to myself (with my bad action), and no one does forgive bad actions except You. Therefore grant me Your forgiveness and mercy. You are the Forgiving, the Merciful.

Seeking protection:
God, I seek Your protection from useless knowledge, from an irreverent heart, from an unanswered supplication, from an insatiable self.

• When waking up:
  Praise be to God who revived us after letting us die, and to Him is the final return.
• After a meal:
  Praise be to God who has given us food and drink and made us surrender unto Him.
• When embarking on a ship (or aeroplane etc.):
  In God's name is both its journey and its landing. My Sustainer is forgiving, merciful. (Noah's (a) prayer when embarking on the ark.)
  Praise be to God. May He be glorified who made this subservient to us, for we would not have been able to control it, and to our Sustainer is the final return.
• During a thunderstorm:
  May He be glorified whose praise is proclaimed by the thunder and who is reverentially praised by the angels.
• In fear of tyrants or political persecution:
  God, be sufficient for us against them according to Your will. God, I take You as a shield against them and seek your protection from their evil.
• For inner calm and clear speech:
  My Sustainer, expand my breast and make my task easy for me and untie the knot of my tongue so that they understand what I say. (Moses' (a) prayer when he was chosen to confront Pharao)
• Prayer for peace:
  God, you are peace. Peace comes from you, and peace returns to you. Revive us, our Sustainer, with Your peace, and lead us to the garden, the place of Your peace. You are full of blessings, Lord of Majesty and Grace.

Moreover, there are collections of prayers by famous scholars and mystics, e.g. As-Sahifat as-Sajjadiya by the Prophet's great-grandson Ali Zainul-Abidin with prayers for the different days of the week, special months and holidays etc., and from other members of the Prophet's family; by Abdul-Qadir al-Jilani, Ibn al-Arabi and many others.

While ritual prayer is an individual duty, supplication for others is a good action and especially recommended by the Prophet (s). We are taught that an angel stands behind a person who is praying for a brother or sister, saying with each request, "Amin, and the same again for this servant," that is, in any case supplicating for others will bring blessings on the one who is doing it. However, it does not make sense to pray for forgiveness for a person who is not interested or does not believe in ethics or forgiveness anyway. Therefore there is a debate whether a Muslim may pray for non-believers. Critics usually refer to Surah 9:113-114 where the meaninglessness of intercession for idolaters is pointed out to the Prophet (s). On the other hand, Rumi says in a poem,

A preacher once stood up and began
To pray for all wrongdoers exclusively.
He raised his hands, saying, "My Lord, show mercy
To those wicked miserable crooks,
To all those who make good people suffer,
With Christian monks and all disbelievers ....
From them I experienced so much hatred and compulsion
That I was driven from evil to good,
For whenever I turned towards the world,
I was hit painfully by their hand
And turned back to God for help.
Thus the misguided ones guided me to the straight path,
Becoming, as it were, the reason for my salvation,
Therefore I intercede for them."

Besides, there are several traditions from the Prophet (s) as well as from numerous scholars and mystics stating that they did pray for their enemies and persecutors.

The prayer for blessing for the Prophet (s) and his near and dear ones has a special place in Muslim religious practice. Every Muslim knows at least the version used in ritual prayer,

God, bestow Your grace to Muhammad and his near and dear ones, just as you have bestowed Your grace to Abraham and his near and dear ones, and bless Muhammad and his near and dear ones, just as you have blessed Abraham and his near and dear ones. You are the Praised One, the Great.

In the course of time, several shorter or longer versions developed. With the image of the Prophet (s) returning a person's greetings and good wishes, we are taught that the prayer for blessings for the Prophet (s) always reflects on the praying person, giving him/her comfort, strength and peace. Therefore it is especially recommended when having to cope with strong emotions or a critical situation.

This vast treasure of transmitted supplications must not be seen as a substitute for a personal prayer in one's own words for one's own situation and in one's own language. Even the most intimate matters can be submitted to the Creator in a language that is exactly appropriate to one's own inner state. They are then a very private matter between God and the human being.

Occasionally a prayer like that, if it gets beyond the aforementioned privacy, can cause a scandal, e.g. Iqbal's famous poem "Shikwa" (complaint) in which he accuses God to have let down the Muslims, especially those of the Indian subcontinent:

... God, give ear to our complaint;
For we are your tested and sincere servants.
You are used to songs of praise,
But now hear a note of protest as well ...

... All that is left to us is
Jeers from strangers, shame and poverty -
Is this disgrace our recompense
For giving our lives for You?

It may be that perhaps the sweet manners of love
Are not cultivated any more,
And that the path of surrender does not lead
To peace in the heart any more.
Perhaps the heart's compass-needle
was deflected from its direcion of prayer,
And the old law of faithfulness
Has lost its power to bind.
Yet, alas, even You are changing,
Favouring now us, now others.
Monstrous as it is to say,
But Your love has become an unreliable thing! ...

A number of similar prayers of complaint have been transmitted from the mystics. They can be traced back all the way to Abraham's debate with God about the fate of the Wicked Cities.

4. Remembrance (dhikr)

The Arabc word dhikr means remembrance, commemoration, but also mentioning, and it is considered an antidote for human carelessness and forgetfulness, closely connected with selfishness which impairs one's insight into the general context of one's life, blurring intellect, justice and knowledge of God. Whatever form it takes, dhikr is a means to purify the heart from those influences. It can also bring to mind hidden emotions like fear, greed etc. as well as undiscovered good potential waiting to be realized. Therefore dhikr has a central place within the mystical path of self-education, for the Prophet (s) said, "Whoever knows his/her self knows his/her Lord."

The practice of remembrance consists of internalized prayer, reflection, recitation and study of the Qur'an as well as various techniques of meditation. We usually differentiate

1. Dhikr jalli, practised aloud and often in a group. The testimony of faith, a short prayer formula like a praise or the prayer for blessings for the Prophet (s) or the invocation of one or several names of God (from among the "99 Most Beautiful Names") are repeated, or a composition of Qur'anic passages and some of the aforementioned elements (wird) is recited. These methods are transmitted within the sufi orders or similar groups and can be given or modified by a competent teacher of the respective tradition according to the circumstances.

Dhikr khafi, a silent meditation which is mostly practised individually. Dhikr jalli is considered a first stage where the loud repetition is supposed to bring the participants' attention back to the point whenever it is deflected, while dhikr khafi already demands more self-discipline and depth. Here short invocations, Qur'anic passages etc. are combined with techniques like watching one's breath or heartbeat. These exercises are coordinated with the special requirements of the individual.

2. Dhikr qalbi, the "dhikr of the heart", is a further step of internalization when the stage is reached that, regardless of external practice and conscious efforts, there is a basic consciousness of living in God's presence. This realization is shown in the following poem by Rumi:

   A person called "O God!" for many nights
   Until his mouth was sweetened with the sound of it.
   "You call a lot," mocked Satan, "but
   Where is God's answer, 'Here am I?'
   There won't ever be an answer. Stop.
   For how long do you want to call? Keep quiet."
   When he resigned, ashamed and sad,
   Khidr appeared to him in a dream
   Saying, "Why don't you call Him any more?
   Do you regret what you have been longing for?"
   He said, "There never was an answer, 'Here am I',
   So I'm afraid He is rejecting me."
   Your call, "O God!" is My call, "Here am I!"
   Your pain and longing is a message from Myself,
   And all your efforts to come near
   Is My sign that I am pulling you into My presence.
   Your love and longing are My favour to you.
   One call, "O God!" contains a hundred "Here am I!"

In the course of time various traditions and theories have developed according to the respective cultural background and the demands of the respective time and age. There has certainly been a mutual influence with the spiritual traditions of other religions like the Christian "Prayer of the Heart" or Indian yoga. Muslim critics often raise two objections:

1. "Dhikr is an attempt to escape from everyday reality." In fact some techniques of dhikr can cause a certain state of extasy, especially when music and dance are used as it is the case in some traditions. This is then described as the "taste" of a special "state", and a competent teacher will be able to help to cope with this experience, taking care to prevent that it is misused. If meditation techniques are instrumentalized to produce extasy as an end in itself and without any link to everyday life, ethics, the ability for self-criticism or the intellectual and spiritual development of the human being, then this is clearly a case of abuse. Being an individual means to be undividable, and one aspect of dhikr is to become aware of the unity of the human person encountering the Unity of the Transcendental One.
2. "Dhikr is an innovation (bid'a) that is not based on Qur'an and Sunna." The present day variety of methods is in fact the result of a long development. However, the term "dhikr" is a Qur'anic word also it does not necessarily refer to external techniques:

   In the creation of the heavens and the earth and in the alteration of night and day there are certainly signs for people of understanding who remember God standing, sitting and lying on their sides and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth: "Our Sustainer, You have not created all this as meaningless. Glory be to You ..." (Surah 2:190-191)

   Therefore remember Me, I will remember you, and show gratitude to Me and do not be ungrateful. (Surah 2:152)

   You who believe, remember God often and glorify Him morning and evening ... (Surah 33:41-42)

   ... Those who have faith and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of God. In the remembrance of God the hearts do find satisfaction. (Surah 13:28)

   In these verses the word is used in the most general sense, referring to everything that calls to mind and deepens the consciousness of God's presence. Occasionally the Prophet (s) gave instructions to repeat certain invocations, praises (e.g. "Fatima's Tasbih") or verses from the Qur'an. He did not start an obligatory tradition. Probably that was not even necessary because the impression of the new revelation and his life practice was still fresh and influenced the awareness of the people more effectively than the teachings of established religion. The more religious tradition becomes institutionalized, the more it is legitimate and even necessary to develop methods to revive and become aware of immediate religious experience. Or course the traditional methods of dhikr are no substitute for ritual prayer which is part of the Muslims' identity. They can be modified according to present needs and leave space for the development of new treasures of discovery and expression which, however, cannot be made generally binding.