David A

Julian As Caesar

On November 6, the slavery of Caesarship began (273c, 277a). Julian's beard was shaved and, dressed as a soldier, was presented by Constantius to the army (274c; Amm. 15.8.7). He made a ridiculous soldier and was laughed at for the way he walked, staring at the ground (274c-d). With his elevation in rank, Julian received Helena, a daughter off Constantine I, about ten years older than he, as his bride. As Caesar, Julian underwent even closer scrutiny (277b-c). The most trifling letter was examined for traitorous intent and servants unknown to him, perhaps spies, waited upon him. He brought with him only four of his own servants, among them Oribasius (ep. 14), his physician and faithful friend, who, at Julian's urging, compiled an Encyclopedia of Medicine.

Gaul, once a rich province, was a devastated land occupied by the German Alamanni. Julian described it as 'turned upside down" (277d). Villages and cities had been destroyed and much of the population was in slavery (Lib. 12.48). The role of the new Caesar was to be a figurehead for the people of Gaul to rally behind (278a). In the winter of 355, Julian traveled to Vienne with 360 soldiers. He devoted his time to learning military tactics dividing his nights into three periods: one for sleep, one for government business and one for study. He was frugal in his choice of living quarters and his food was in keeping with his philosophic discipline (Amm. 16.5). At first, Julian sought only to fulfill his duty, resigned to his fate. But after he had been in Gaul for four years he was able to write to two of his fellow-students in Athens "if anyone has persuaded you that there is anything more delightful or more profitable for the human race than to pursue philosophy at ones leisure…he is a deluded man." (ep. 3.441a). Action had replaced the contemplative life.

The campaign of 356 was planned by Constantius with the recapture of Cologne as its objective (Amm. 16.1-3). Julian was informed only when the commander-in-chief, Marcellus, had issued orders for the army to march. The Caesar was allowed to follow with his private army of a few hundred horsemen. But before his departure, Julian learned that a force of Germans was marching on Augustodunum (Autun): he decided to challenge them. Upon reaching the city, Julian found that the Germans were still en route, so he continued his march selecting a route through a dense forest to tempt an attack. Julian's wish for his baptism of battle was granted when his small force was attacked; the Germans were beaten back and prisoners were taken. Because of his success Marcellus was forced to take notice of the Caesar and reserve a place for him at his council of war (Amm. 16.2.1; Lib. 18.43). In the ensuring campaign for the capture of Cologne, Julian played a smaller role than Ammianus makes it out to be, but he was now a commander to be reckoned with (Amm. 16.2; Lib. 18.45-46).

Another incident that increased Julian's prestige occurred after he went into winter quarters at Senonae (Sens). The city was surrounded by the Alamanni and laid siege for a month. With only his bodyguard Julian successfully fought off each assault, personally leading his men from the city walls. Eventually, the Germans gave up for lack of supplies (Amm. 16.4); but Marcellus had been near enough yet neglected to relieve Julian, perhaps in the hopes that the Caesar would be defeated. Julian emerged with greater respect and, although he did not complain to Constantius, Marcellus was dismissed when many of Julian's officers did (Amm. 16.7; Lib. 18.48). His replacement was Severus, an officer of long experience, who arrived to find Julian had assumed command. Despite this, the two men were able to work together in harmony (Amm. 16.11).

The culmination of Julian's military career came in 357 at Strasbourg, where with 13,000 men he faced an army of Alamanni several times larger, commanded by King Chnodmar. Julian had to choose between fighting or allowing the Germans to overrun Gaul: he chose to attack. During the battle Julian, made conspicuous by a purple dragon pennant, rode along the Roman line rallying his soldiers. Roman discipline prevailed and Julian won a tremendous victory: the Alamanni were destroyed as a military force and their king was captured. The victory made Julian famous, and he was referred to by the name Victorinus. It also altered relations between Constantius and his cousin as the emperor came to see Julian a rival instead of a colleague (Amm. 16.11-12; Lib. 18.50-67).

During the three winters Julian spent in Paris (358 - 360) he turned his attention to the ills of bad administration. The most serious problem was the poll-tax, which was fixed to the number of inhabitants every 15 years and remained unaltered regardless of changes in the population, and was collected with an already heavy land tax. Julian reduced the amount of the poll-tax from 25 solodii to 7 per head. The praetorian prefect Florentius, who domain included Gaul, declared the taxes remitted for 358 were in deficit and proposed a special levy to make up the difference. Julian, although he did not have authority, computed the land and poll taxes and showed that the amount collected was actually in excess of what was required (Amm. 17.3). He also distributed the tribute collected from the Germans equally, so the rich alone would not benefit, (Amm. 16.5.14) and succeeded in bringing the province some of the prosperity it had known in former times (Lib. 18.90).

Julian sought to publicly expose corruption but not at the expense of justice. A famous case concerned Numerus, the governor of Narbonese Gaul, who was accused of embezzlement. When after long questioning that brought only denials from the governor, the prosecutor declared to Julian: "Will anyone ever be guilty, your highness, if denial is enough to secure acquittal?" To which Julian replied, "Will anyone ever be acquitted if accusation is enough to secure conviction?" (Amm. 17.1.4).

At Court, Julian's enemies denigrated his success and warned that the Caesar was building himself up as a rival to the emperor (Amm. 17.11). Constantius was ready to believe the rumors and decided to limit Julian's power. Thoughts of a rivalry were not far from Julian's mind either. In 359, he reported a dream to Oribasius (ep. 4.384) concerning two trees: a large older tree and a small, young one. The tall tree, although a menace to the smaller, toppled over leaving the younger to flourish. Constantius's courtiers suggested that it was Salutius (Amm. 25.5.3), Julian's military advisor, who was responsible for the Caesar's success (244c-245b), so he was recalled to render Julian somewhat less of a threat (282c; Amm. 20.4.1). Salutius was a native of Gaul and a man of learning and culture (247d, 252a-b). In him, Julian had found a substitute for Maximus and his departure was a blow.

Next, Florentius decided that Julian was to send half of his army to join the Roman forces fighting the Persians. In January 360, an imperial delegation arrived with an order taking Julian's best soldiers (Amm. 20.4.2; Lib. 18.90-93). Although his army would be severely depleted Julian was reluctant to disobey, respecting the social hierarchy and obedience he owed to Constantius. The soldiers were serving under the agreement that they would not be asked to leave their homes in Gaul and Julian warned that a mutiny could occur; but the risk did not impress the delegation, who were convinced the Caesar was stalling (283a-284a; Amm. 20.4.3-4).

The gods made their intentions known to Julian in a dream, where he saw the Genius of the Romans, who told him that he had been rebuffed in the past by Julian's unwillingness for a greater position and one final chance awaited which, if not taken, meant he would leave him forever (Amm. 20.5.10). The following day, when Julian announced the order to his troops, he was proclaimed Augustus, placed on an infantry shield and carried among the soldiers, crowned with a standard-bearers collar in place of a diadem. Although Julian tried to convince his soldiers otherwise, he consented to accept the title (ep. 8, 284b-285d; Amm. 20.4.40-17; Lib. 18.96-101).

Hoping to avoid civil war, Julian entered into months of negotiations with Constantius. A letter was sent explaining the circumstances of his elevation, signed as Caesar, suggesting that Julian rule over Gaul (285d-286d; Amm. 20.8.2-17). When Constantius read the letter, in a fit of rage, he ordered Julian to remain within the bounds of his former power (Amm. 20.9). During these months Helena (Amm. 21.1.5) and Eusebia (Amm. 21.6.4) died, removing the final link between the two men. To keep Julian occupied, as he had dealt with Magnentius earlier, Constantius incited the Alamanni to create a disturbance. Julian crossed the Rhine inflicting a severe defeat on the barbarians, and captured their leader, Vadomar, from whom he learned of Constantius's treachery (Amm. 21.3; Lib. 18.107). Nothing remained for Julian but to march against his cousin, who was still detained by the Persian war. He divided his army sending a small force to secure Italy while Julian marched toward the Danube with 3,000 men, bound for Constantinople (Amm. 21.8).

Julian "traveled over the earth with incredible speed and unweary energy as though he had flown through the air" (296d; Lib. 18.111; Amm. 21.2.5). On reaching the Danube the army went by boat surprising the garrison at Sirmium, which surrendered without a fight (Amm. 21.10.1). However, the city of Aquileia closed its gates in defiance and was subjected to a siege which ended on the death of Constantius (Amm. 21.11). Julian halted at Naissos, the city Constantine I claimed as his birthplace, to plan the decisive confrontation with his cousin. Letters were sent to secure diplomatic cooperation to Rome, Athens and Corinth. Although an easterner, Julian had always claimed the superiority of Rome, even though he had never visited the city (5c, 131d), which with Athens were symbols of the political and cultural principles that the empire stood on (8c; Lib. 15.36). Constantinople was ignored in his letters. Julian's belief in the spiritual, cultural, and political unity of the empire stemming from Rome and Athens was a personal view that was out of date at the time, and was a throwback to the time of the Antonines when such a belief was universal.

The shadow of Constantius, who had crushed every usurper that had challenged him, fell heavily on Julian. When his cousin marched to confront him with his sizable army who would remain loyal? Had the gods led him into misfortune? Despite many favorable omens to the contrary Julian pondered a bleak future (Amm. 22.1). The suspense ended one day late in November or in early December when Julian learned that Constantius had died at Mopsucrenae, a small town near the Cappadocian border, on November 5 (Amm. 21.15.2-3, 22.2). The resolution was miraculous and Julian recorded his feelings of relief at there being no bloodshed in a letter he wrote to Julian, his maternal uncle (ep. 9). On December 11, 361, Julian entered Constantinople greeted by the Senate and acclaimed by the people (Amm. 22.2). He met the cortege escorting Constantius's body to the capital at the Bosphorus for the completion of its journey and ordered a period of mourning. He had his cousin buried next to his father in the Church of the Holy Apostles.

Notes

1 Grant,Michael, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A Reappraisal,(The Annenberg School Press, 1976),pp. 15-16.

2 Athanassiadi,Polymnia, Julian:An Intellectual Biography,(Routledge,1992),p. 85.