5. HINDUISM

 

 Hinduism, as presented in the West in several forms, has impressed many people. But those who have visited the country of its origin have noticed that there is a great difference between this presentation and the actual practices of the population in general. Whereas these presentations are sophisticated and sublime, the religion practiced by the people is full of superstition, ritualism and a great number of socially and psychologically harmful activities. This makes the Islamic position understandable, that though Allah sent His messengers all over the world, the teachings and its applications have deteriorated over time. There is no written record of the original teachings. These were written down only much later, though they were certainly remembered and transmitted orally. We cannot be certain what the original teachings were even if they had been written down owing to changes in language and circumstances to which they relate. There is, however, sufficient in these teachings to indicate that they arise from a higher source, that at least some of those who transmitted and interpreted the teachings were psychologically advanced souls, and the teachings still contain ideas comparable to those found in other higher religions.

Since Islam requires its followers to search for knowledge wherever it can be found, the Hindu literature is certainly worth investigating. The Muslim ought to interpret this in the light of the Quran, and incorporate everything which is consistent with it, helps him deepen his understanding and facilitates his development.

Many Muslims and Christians regard Hinduism as a pagan, polytheistic religion which ought to be ignored or condemned. But it is necessary to get beyond the particular practices of people and go back to the original teachings themselves. Even the practices of Muslims and Christians have departed from the original teachings. A study of the Bhagavad-Gita which contains the essence of the Hindu teaching shows that it is not at all pagan or polytheistic.

Hinduism is based on the most ancient religious teachings known. It is not a single religion, but a collection of many different though inter-related doctrines, practices and institutions, which have accumulated, differentiated and recombined in various ways because of the teachings, interpretations and elaborations of a series of teachers over the centuries. Existing literature shows definite signs of both adaptations to changing circumstances and gradual development. Not all these can be regarded as objective or free from the workings of self-interest, fantasy or ignorance. A priest class certainly arose which interpreted and elaborated the doctrines for the purposes of enhancing their wealth, power or prestige. The division of the society into rigid castes supported by a special theology is of a relatively recent origin and probably had this aim. According to this doctrine, the Brahmans (Priests) constitute the highest caste and are said to have arisen from the Head of Brahma (God). The second caste, the Kshatrias (rulers, warriors and nobles) arose from the arms of Brahma. The next caste arising from the body of Brahma were the Vaisyas (peasants and artisans). The Shudras are Outcasts or Untouchables, people belonging to the conquered non-Aryan races, were said to have arisen from the feet of Brahman. They were given the most menial tasks and looked upon with contempt. It was impossible to get out of the caste into which a person was born. The corruption, stagnation and degeneration of the whole Hindu society can be attributed to this. This, it is claimed, cannot be regarded as true Hinduism just as the corrupt Christian Church in the Middle Ages cannot be regarded as true Christianity. However, it is possible to justify the doctrine by interpreting it symbolically and supposing that there were circumstances in the past where a division of function was advantageous in order to create social order, encourage the development of the various trades, and even to develop special qualities in human beings by selective breeding. But the founder of this doctrine is not known. Spiritually advanced souls did continue to arise from time to time, bringing about reformations and more sophisticated interpretations of the Hindu Scriptures.

 

Three levels of Hinduism should be recognised:-

1. Ritualistic Hinduism which is practised by the common, mostly simple, uneducated people. The rites could be divided into public and domestic ones. The purpose of these was to create and reinforce certain psychological attitudes which had a social or even developmental value, or may have been useful only in the times and place where they arose. Myths and numerous gods were invented to explain these rites, or conversely, the rites were invented to support myths meant to provide philosophical explanations for various cosmological, psychological or social phenomena. In this case the myths are more like scientific formulae except that they have not only an intellectual aspect, but also an emotional and motor one. Thought, feeling and action are combined. Much of this becomes obsolete as times change, is converted into superstition and becomes an obstruction to the development of the people.

Most Hindus are idol worshippers. But it is doubtful whether many of them think that the idol itself has any power. Rather they represent a god and act as a focus of attention both for the community and the individual when he concentrates his mind in prayer or meditation. However, they see their god as limited, and may, therefore, worship more than one god as their situation demands. The rituals associated with these idols are meant to create and sustain certain attitudes towards life, a sense of the sacred and reinforce moral behaviour. Hinduism appears to be free of dogma and does not divide into rigid sects. The people of one sect will readily accept or join another. Their beliefs overlap each other. This being the case, Hinduism has readily incorporated ideas coming from elsewhere.

Conflict with Islam may arise because Islam does not allow idol worship for several reasons:- That Allah is the ultimate Unity and, therefore, unseen; that He is not limited and not one of many. That to focus attention on something which is limited is also to limit oneself. Liberation and detachment can only be attained by transcending all limitations. However, Islam does not condemn the Idol-worshippers:-

“Surely pure religion is for Allah only. Those who choose protecting friends besides Him say : We worship them only that they may bring us near unto Allah. Lo! Allah will judge between them concerning that wherein they differ. Lo! Allah guides not him who is a liar, an ingrate.” Quran 39: 3

Islam can be said to incorporate polytheism by regarding what others call gods as attributes of Allah. Indeed, at higher levels of Hinduism we also find this attitude - all the gods are aspects of a single God.

2. Philosophical Hinduism which is studied by the educated Brahmans. It is this version which has affected and been affected by Hebrewism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. It is also the version which has been exported abroad and became popular in the West.

3. The Higher or Esoteric Hinduism such as Yoga which is studied, understood and practised by only the few who generally withdraw from the rest of the community or remain invisible to it in so far as they are not understood by them. It is unlikely that genuine teachers from this group are known in the West.

 

Hinduism is based as follows:-

A distinction is made between Shruti (heard or revealed scriptures) and Smirti (remembered or human interpretations). There are altogether 8 levels.

There are 3 Shruti:-

1. The Four Vedas are the source - RigVeda, SamaVeda, YajurVeda, AtharvaVeda.

These consist of hymns, prayers, ethics, charms, spells, cosmological teachings and medicine.

2. The Brahmanas which supplement the above. They contain directions, instructions and explanations for prayer, sacrifice and rituals. Attached to the RigVeda, for instance, is Aitareya and Kaushitaki. The Sama Veda has 8 Brahmanas attached to it. The YajurVeda has Satapatha, and Taittiriya.

3. The Upanishads (“sitting and learning with a teacher”). There are several versions, but collectively they are known as Vedanta.

 

There are 5 Smirti:-

4. The Sutras (verses) such as the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

5. The Shastras.

6. The Epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Bhagavadgita which contains the essence of the Hindu teachings, is a part of the Mahabharata.

7. The Puranas

8. The Tantras.

There are said to be Six Acceptable Systems of Philosophy (Darshana). They are contained in such works as the Vedanta Sutras and the Yoga Sutras:-

1. Samkhya (theories in Cosmology), 2. Yoga (techniques of Union), 3. Nayana (Epistomology and Logic), 4.Vedanta (studies of the Upinishads), 5. Purva-mimansa (takes the literal and simple view of the Vedas), 6.Vaisheshika (applies logic to the study of the external world).

 

Hindu Cosmology is highly symbolic and mythological. Though this produces sub-conscious effects, it leads to great differences in interpretation, misunderstandings, the play of fantasies and confusion when conscious attempts are made to understand them. Islam on the other hand has to a large extent demythologised religion. The reason for this, no doubt, is that the times and conditions of life when the two religions were taught are different. Though it is agreed by all Hindu Scholars that there is ultimately only one supreme God, there are many deities in Hinduism and all are considered to be different aspects of the same God, The names of these, however, continue to change according to times and circumstances and according to which aspect, attribute of nature or field is under discussion. Some of these gods are creatures, and may be regarded as being equivalent to the Archangels, angels, or certain aspects of them in western theology.

The Upanishad tells us:-

“First was neither being (sat) nor non-being (asat). The All was like a sea without dimensions. The Void held what was potential. Then Warmth (Tupas) developed in it and produced the One. Then Desire (or Purpose), the earliest seed of Spirit developed in the One.”

“Verily, in the beginning, this world was Brahman, the limitless One - limitless to the east, limitless to the north, limitless in every direction. Incomprehensible is that soul, unlimited, unborn, not to be reasoned about, unthinkable - he whose soul is Space. In the dissolution of the world He alone remains awake. From that Space, He assuredly awakes this world which is a mass of thought. It is thought by Him, and in Him it disappears. He is that shining form which gives heat in yonder sun and which is the brilliant light in a smokeless fire, as also the fire in the stomach which cooks the food. For thus it is said: He who is in the fire, and He who is here in the heart, and He who is yonder in the sun - He is One.”

Thus we see three stages of development (The Void, Warmth and the One), of which the third is the One. This could be interpreted as implying that two stages before the arising of God are described. However, since nothing can be known about these former stages and no cause for the development can be found, Islam sees all three as being incorporated in the notion of Allah. The two previous stages may also be seen as the condition of the Existence before the coming into existence of the Primeval Atom, from which, by a Big Bang, the Universe is said to have arisen according to modern Science.

This Original One is variously named at various times. The most popular name is Brahman or Parabrahman. Other names are understood as referring to various aspects or attributes. Some of these are male because they fertilise, energise or initiate, while others such as Kali or Durga are female because they give birth to the Universe. But a distinction has to be made between the formless which is real and the formed which is derived. The world of form is Maya (Illusion). We should not, however, suppose that the term is used in the sense of being false, but rather that it refers to what is derived and has a dependant existence having no stability or permanence of its own, like the waves in the ocean. In so far as the future and the past do not exist and the present is constantly changing from the one to the other, then, as soon as we have affirmed something, it has changed and is no more. Thus we have Saguna Brahman (Brahman with attributes) and Nirguna Brahman (Brahman without attributes). Hence the distinction between He and It. The distinction is similar to the one between the Islamic ‘Essence of Allah’ and ‘Attributes of Allah’ which corresponds to ‘The hidden and the manifest’.

Brahman does not only refer to all material existence, but also to all subjective phenomena, including reason, feeling and will, consciousness, soul and self. A distinction arises between ‘Prakriti’ (The world of Forms) and Paramatman (The Universal Spirit) of which Atman (The Spirit within man) is a part. Atman is distinct from Jiva (the outer self consisting of body and mind). Everything is Brahman, including Atman, but at various levels. Hence “Tat tvam asi” (That art Thou). This obviously refers to the underlying reality not to forms which obviously differ. The forms by which we distinguish between things are not the ultimate reality but patterns in the mind of Brahman, and there are patterns within patterns and so on creating ever more distinctions.

It is clear, therefore, that we derive from Brahman and return to Brahman. Emancipation or release from Maya is called Moksha. In so far as we seek truth, permanence and happiness, the release from the suffering which arise due to limitations and conflicts, we must seek Brahman. In short we must Surrender.

“When a man surrenders all desires that come to the heart and by the grace of God finds the joy of God, then his soul has indeed found peace.” Bhagavadgita. 2:55

To explain how a formless being could create a visible world of forms, Hinduism postulates the arising, symbolically, of a Golden Egg, Hiranyagarbha, on the Sea of Brahman. It is the disintegration of this Egg that gives birth to the Universe. This is not unlike the Scientific theory of the Primeval Atom whose explosion, the Big Bang, produces the Universe. The first differentiation produces Brahma, the Creator (not to be confused with Brahman), Shiva, the Destroyer and Vishnu, the Preserver. Brahma, when personified, is called Ishvara (Lord), Thus the Hindu Trinity is derived by making an intellectual distinction. This distinction is not regarded as real since it consists of forms.

Vishnu may appear among mankind as an Avatar (An incarnation) in times of trouble to teach and guide them. This brings about a new dispensation of religion. Rama and Krishna are said to be such incarnations. Some hindus also recognise Gautama Buddha and Jesus. An Avatar called Kalki is expected in the future. Ignoring differences in formulation the Avatar is equivalent to the Christ or Messenger. It is necessary to note that he is not an incarnation of Brahman but of Vishnu, the Preserver. Brahma may be regarded as equivalent to the Word or Logos. Brahma and Shiva are opposite aspects of the same thing since creation requires destruction of something else.

In so far as they are regarded as positive or male forces, these three are also said to have negative or female consorts. Thus, we get a pair of opposites from the very beginning. This produces 6 manifestations. If we add Brahman, then the Divine World is described by the number 7. Or if we think of Brahman as being with and without form, then we have the number 8. This is reflected also in the 8 levels of scriptures on which Hinduism is based.

The world of forms, including man, therefore, has arisen by the apparent (since forms are not real) self-sacrifice, disintegration or self-division of the Supreme deity, such that every part of Him become the different aspects of the Universe, including the gods. He is both the sacrificer and the sacrifice. The sacrifices practised by the Hindus re-enact this process. From another point of view this sacrifice reinforces the intention of the devotee to sacrifice himself in repayment of the sacrifice by which he arose, thereby reversing not only his own descent into the world of forms or illusion, but also helping the whole process of liberation and return to Brahman. The sacrificial Fire, therefore, has an important role since it represents the transforming force, that which burns away forms and causes fusion. This idea is also found in the religions of ancient Babylon and reappears in the sacrifice of Abraham, celebrated by Jews and Muslims. The son whom Abraham was to sacrifice clearly symbolises the derived or created world or the worldly life of sin and illusion. It is also the central theme in Christianity where Jesus, regarded as the son of God, is sacrificed. This is celebrated in the Sacrament where it is also used to reinforce the intention of the devotee to sacrifice his sinful life and accept the divine spirit. Here is evidence for the common origin of the religions in history and in human consciousness.

The Universe is represented as the breathing in and out of Brahman. It is destroyed at the end of each Kalpa or period, and after a Pralaya, a period of rest, it is newly created. In other words, it has a cyclic history. It expands and contracts. Within these cycles there are other lesser cycles, and so on. We have the Wheel of Samsara. The theory of Karma and Reincarnation arises from this. it is, however, a later development and this subject will be dealt with under Buddhism.

 

Vaisheshika philosophy takes the external world as self-existing and has an atomic theory. Samkhya philosophy recognises prakriti (matter) and purushu (spirit) as distinct. But as also in the Bhagadvadgita, the natural world is seen as arising from the interaction of three Gunas (agencies or principles). These are:-

Sattva (purifying, balancing, reconciling)

Rajas (active, energising, positive)

Tamas (passive, inert, negative)

All things and their states from the grossest to the finest and most subtle can be described by the combination in different proportions of the Gunas.

Taoist philosophy, as science, sees the Universe and all things in it as arising from the interaction of only two opposite forces, a positive and a negative. We have electrons and positrons, matter and anti-matter, right-handedness and left-handedness in Science and Ying and Yang in Taoism. Islam, too, recognises two forces, the male and female. However, the third or reconciling force may be regarded as hidden but manifesting itself in the separation, attraction and combination of the pair. The original unity cannot be divided into a pair of opposites unless we also consider something which held them together in the first place, and now tries to recombine them. Construction and destruction, evolution and involution, catabolism and anabolism, are everywhere kept in balance and states of equilibrium. Thus it is perfectly clear that though all things when examined by analysis do indeed show a pair of opposites, a third factor is needed for a synthesis. This third factor is seen as Allah, deriving from Him or representing Him. The difference between science, the ordinary analytical mind and worldly life on the one hand, and religion on the other, probably depends just on this that one is analytical and other constructive. Religion requires the return to Unity. The recommendation in both Hinduism and Islam is to transcend the pair of opposites.

 

Hinduism recognises four goals for human beings:-

I. Kama. The desire for pleasure including the sexual.

II. Artha. The desire for power, wealth and worldly success.

III. Dharma. The religious and ethical law. Duties to the family and the community.

IV. Moksha. salvation or liberation. This consists of three methods:-

   1, Karma Marga - The Way of Works. This is based on the assumption that the cause of human misery is wrong actions which also modify feelings and thought. It consists of rituals, ceremonies and duties. There are Books dealing with this such as the Laws of Manu.

  2, Jnana Marga - The Way of Knowledge. This is based on the assumption that the cause of human misery is Avidya (Ignorance), both about the external world and about a person’s own inner nature. In particular ignorance consists of regarding oneself as a real and separate entity. Knowledge does not mean mere intellectual knowledge but consciousness.

There are four stages of development:-

(a) That of the student of religion.

(b) The Householder. One who is married and discharges his responsibilities to family and community.

(c) The Hermit who devotes himself to detachment, liberation and enlightenment.

(d) The Sanyasin or Holy Man who seeks complete self-realisation and absorption in Brahman (Samadhi). He also helps others along the way.

 

  3. Bhakti Marga - The Way of Devotion. This consists of devotion to a deity, however conceived or named. It consists of Surrender.

It is not difficult to see that Islam agrees with these, but combines all of them into a single self-consistent system, whereas Hinduism separates them into different activities which often apply to different people.

 

The techniques used for development are called Yoga (yoking or union with God.) There are a great many of these, each connected with different faculties. The main ones are:-

RajaYoga concerns itself with meditation, the intellect and consciousness.

BhaktiYoga is devotional and concerns itself with feeling, emotions and conscience.

KarmaYoga which works on the body and consists of postures and exercises.

Others are concerned with breathing exercises (HathaYoga), knowledge (JnanaYoga), psycho-sexual energy (KundalaniYoga). Still others are concerned with ethics, rituals, charms, sounds (mantras), coloured diagrams and patterns (mandalas), and so on.

It is evident that Yoga systems offer a much greater variety of techniques than those available elsewhere and that these can be made to fit the exact requirements of a great variety of people. It could also be further developed as knowledge and expertise increases. It offers the hope that psychological development will become as common and natural a part of life as education and medicine is now. It is, however, not certain whether any genuine teachers of high quality still exist in Hinduism.

It is not generally known that Islam, too, has an equivalent developmental system known as Sufism or Tariqa (The Method or The Way). Here no distinction is made between different methods. A variety of techniques are used in various combinations, each adapted specifically for an individual or group by a qualified guide who knows what he is doing. Many Hindus have sought Islamic teachers. A single sided approach could not create a well-balanced person, who does not suffer from some debilitating defect in some other direction.

It is agreed by genuine teachers that Yoga should only be used for spiritual development and that it can only be effective under the supervision of a qualified teacher who adapts the correct mixture of techniques to suit the peculiarities of the student. Yoga, however, has been corrupted in the West where it is used indiscriminately for physical and egotistic purposes without a qualified teacher. It has become impossible to discriminate between the genuine and the spurious. Thus the danger of releasing something valuable to the general public has become crystal clear. Hence Sufi techniques are kept hidden apart from the fact that what is not systematised is not easily recognised. However, not all those who claim to be Sufis are genuine Sufis. Anyone can call himself anything he likes. The genuine ones almost never claim to be Sufis.

We may conclude that:-

(a) There is no essential difference between Hinduism and the other major religions in their original aim.

(b) Allowance, however, has to be made for the differences in the people, their circumstances and for the evolution of religion with time. This creates differences in formulations, techniques and emphasis.

(c) Hinduism has produced some very sophisticated techniques for human development. These require highly developed guides. Their export and popularisation in the West has trivialised them and robbed them of their developmental value. It is likely that even if these techniques were correctly practised they may be out of date and place and, therefore, ineffective in the changed conditions of life.

(d) In practice this religion, as others, has degenerated. Though not originally so, it has been corrupted by idolatry, superstition and often very perverse practices. These corruptions are responsible for the backwardness of the people and are an obstruction to further progress. Islam has objections to this corruption, not the original teachings. But this applies also impartially to malpractices in Islamic communities.

(e) Reformations have taken place in this religion from time to time, and Buddhism may also be regarded as such a reformations. But these reformations vary in quality and past formulations continue to coexist with the newer ones, influencing and corrupting them. In the absence of a fixed, recorded reference point it is difficult to disentangle these.

(f) Hinduism, like Islam, was not in the past wholly other worldly, but also contains ethical, political, economic and cultural teachings which, though relevant to past eras, can be revived and adapted for the modern use. Unfortunately, the intelligentsia tended to retreat into an exclusively spiritual life leaving the rest of the community to its own devices. This is probably the cause of India’s backwardness. These teachings are not essentially different from that of Islam and will not, therefore, be described.

(g) Much can still be learnt from Hinduism, both positive and negative, to enrich the other religions, as Hinduism itself has been enriched by learning from other religions, including Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Hinduism has also given rise to other religions such as Jainism and Sikhism. The latter may be regarded as combination of Islam and Hinduism.

(h) There is no reason whatever for a conflict between Hindus and Muslims. But conflict occurs at lower levels because of corruption due to ignorance and misinterpretations and attachments to the formulation rather than meanings, the letter rather than the spirit, and to one technique rather than another. It is only advances in education which can change this situation.

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