Snefru
{snef'-roo}

Snefru, fl. c.2780 BC, who was probably the last king of the Egyptian 3d dynasty, built the earliest surviving examples of true pyramids. His reign, for part of which extensive records exist, appears to have been a time of prosperity.

Snefru raided Nubia and Libya, and also conquered Sinai. He was responsible for the construction of two pyramids at Dahshur, one of them showing faults that indicate this attempt may have been the first at building such a structure.

Some Ancient Civilizations

Name Approximate dates Location Major cities

Akkadian 2350-2230 B.C. Mesopotamia, parts of Akkad, Ur, Erich Syria, Asia Minor, Iran Assyrian 1800-889 B.C. Mesopotamia, Syria Assur, Nineveh, Calah Babylonian 1728-1686 B.C. (old) Mesopotamia, Syria, Babylon 625-539 B.C. (new) Palestine Cimmerian 750-500 B.C. Caucasus, northern Asia — Minor Egyptian 2850-715 B.C. Nile valley Thebes, Memphis, Tanis Etruscan 900-396 B.C. Northern Italy — Greek 900-200 B.C. Greece Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Mycenae, Corinth Hittite 1640-1200 B.C. Asia Minor, Syria Hattusas, Nesa Indus Valley 3000-1500 B.C. Pakistan, Northwestern India — Lydian 700-547 B.C. Western Asia Minor Sardis, Miletus Mede 835-550 B.C. Iran Media Minoan 3000-1100 B.C. Crete Knossos Persian 559-330 B.C. Iran, Asia Minor, Syria Persepolis, Pasargadae Phoenician 1100-332 B.C. Palestine (colonies: Tyre, Sidon, Byblos Gibraltar, Carthage, Sardinia) Phrygian 1000-547 B.C. Central Asia Minor Gordion Roman 500 B.C.–A.D. 300 Italy, Mediterranean Rome, Byzantium region, Asia Minor, western Europe Scythian 800-300 B.C. Caucasus — Sumerian 3200-2360 B.C. Mesopotamia Ur, Nippur



The Great Sphinx

A mythical creature that was frequently a subject of ancient Egyptian sculpture, the sphinx combined the body of an animal (usually a lion) with the head of a man, and was usually depicted in a recumbent position. Statues of sphinxes were often associated with Egyptian sanctuaries, as in the avenue of sphinxes connecting the temples of Luxor and Karnak in THEBES. The most famous Egyptian sphinx lies near the pyramid (see PYRAMIDS) of KHAFRE (c.2500 BC) at GIZA. Known as the Great Sphinx, it measures 21 m (69 ft) in height and 74 m (243 ft in length) and its face, now badly damaged, is believed to represent King Khafre himself. Originally built to guard the pyramid, the Great Sphinx was later worshiped as the god Rahorakhty, "Ra of the Two Horizons." Long one of Egypt's most celebrated monuments, it was disfigured by vandalism in the past, and today is threatened by air pollution.

In ancient Greek art and legend--in the story of OEDIPUS, for example--the sphinx became a winged monster with the body of a lion and the head of a woman.

Sarcophagus
{sahr-kahf'-uh-guhs}

A sarcophagus is an ancient coffin (chest and lid) made of wood, terra-cotta, marble, alabaster, or metal, and generally ornamented with painting, sculpture, or both. From the Hellenistic through the Early Christian period (4th century BC-5th century AD), sarcophagi were usually adorned with vividly colored, elaborately carved reliefs, or friezes, of either continuous scenes or rows of single figures in architectural settings. Sarcophagi are an invaluable record of sculptural style, technique, and subject matter, especially with regard to funerary sculpture. The term sarcophagus derives from two Greek words meaning "flesh-eating." According to the Roman historian Pliny the Elder, this stemmed from the use, during prehistoric ages as well as in ancient Egypt and Greece, of coffins lined with a type of stone with caustic properties that was believed to consume a corpse in 40 days. The oldest known sarcophagus is Egyptian and dates from the 1st dynasty (c.3000 BC). One of the best known Egyptian examples is the red-granite sarcophagus of Tutankhamen (c.1350 BC; Cairo Museum).

The "Greek type" of stone sarcophagus was decorated on all four sides. Found in eastern Hellenistic kingdoms, it dates from the mid-4th century BC and remained in use during Roman times. A fine example is the brightly painted Alexander Sarcophagus (late 4th century BC; Istanbul Museum).

In ancient Italy Etruscan sarcophagi were generally modeled in terra-cotta or carved in stone and date from the 6th to the 1st century BC. These were the first to portray on their lids the recumbent effigy of the deceased individual or, as on the di Vulci Sarcophagus (c.400-350 BC; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), the effigies of a deceased couple.

The earliest Roman sarcophagus is that of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (3d century BC; the Vatican, Rome). It is unusual in date because Romans preferred cremation to burial until AD c.100. The "Roman type" of sarcophagus was carved in high relief, often with representations of garlands, battles, and mythological subjects. A good example is the Niobid Sarcophagus (AD c.130; Lateran, Rome).

On Christian sarcophagi after AD 400, such as that of Saint Barbara in Ravenna (AD c.500), biblical themes replaced mythological and historical subjects. The continuous narrative of the Roman sarcophagi was supplanted by crowded, super-imposed scenes, or niches, separated by small columns, and enclosing figures.

The Early Christian column sarcophagus, derived from Greek versions exported to Rome from Asia Minor (AD 100-200), influenced medieval and Gothic funerary sculpture, for example Tino da Camaino's monument for Holy Roman Emperor HENRY VII (c.1310; Campo Santo, Pisa). Because of their classical grandeur and dignity, ornate sarcophagi continued to be made during the Renaissance and Baroque periods and were sometimes incorporated in monumental tombs, for example, Andrea del Verrocchio's Medici Tomb (c.1472; San Lorenzo, Florence).

Stele
stele, stone or terra-cotta slab, usually oblong, set upright. Used as votives or memorials, they were commonly carved with inscriptions and designs. Stelae were often used as commemorative stones in ancient Egypt and as boundary markers in Mesopotamia. Greek marble funerary stelae, with painted reliefs of the dead, are monuments of classical art. Ancient stelae are also found in China and in Mayan ruins. STEP PYRAMID OF KING ZOSER Saqqara

Dynasty III, 2780-2680 B.C.

The step pyramid of King Zoser was built by Inhotep, chancellor of the king, high priest, healer, and architect. This is the first pyramid and the first building in stone. In six stages or steps, it rises to a height of 204 feet. The original limestone facing is gone. Zoser's burial chamber is at the bottom of a shaft more than ninety feet under the base of the pyramid. Even in this initial form the pyramid reaches out to link man with eternity.