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Commentary
The early history of Rome is a fascinating tapestry woven from extrapolated Greek legends, and the assimilated legends of Italy’s indigenous inhabitants. Evident are the ties which bind this junior state to Greek legend. Equally evident are the conflicting traditions whereby Rome declares her independence. The account begins with the story of Aeneas, which Vergil so eloquently wove from Greek tradition. Then, the early history of Rome shall be discussed. Finally, a brief account of Italian gods, and their not so perfect comparison to Greek counterparts shall be given.
I Sing of Arms and a Man
Aeneas, and a small band of followers, were the only Trojans to escape death or enslavement when the Greeks razed the city, Troy. Aeneas, himself witnessed the final destruction of his homeland, and the death of Priam and prince Polites. The tale of the fall of Troy, told in the second book of Virgil’s Aeneid, is best reserved for a discussion of the Trojan war.
Venus Seduces Anchises
Aeneas was the son of Venus and Anchises. Juppiter had cursed Venus to love this mortal as a punishment when she taunted other goddesses who lamented the deaths of their beloved mortals. Venus came to Anchises disguised as a maiden(no small feat for a fertility goddess), and he seduced her. Afterwards, she told him that he would not be punished if he did not tell anyone of their encounter. Juppiter hit Anchises with a crippling thunderbolt when he bragged of his exploits to the Trojan youths at a drinking party. Meanwhile, Venus raised the boy on Mt. Ida, and took comfort in Juppiter’s promise of his future glory.
Aeneas Survives the War
Aeneas was spared by the gods from death in Troy. Once in battle, he came face to face with Achilles, but was rescued by Neptune. Greek sources say that he was left as king of the weak remains of Troy. But the story of his voyage to Italy is much older than Vergil.
Aeneas Encounters Polydorus’s Grave
At any rate, Aeneas was able to escape from burning Troy with his father, Anchises, on his shoulders, and his son, Ascanius, whom the Romans called Iulus(emphasizing that he was the ancestor of the Julian gens, to which the emperor, Augustus belonged). He and his followers wandered across the Aegean in search of a place to establish a new settlement. They first made land in Thrace, and began to build. They were scared off, however, when they encountered the tomb of Polydorus, the son of Priam, who had been killed by Polymnestor.
Another Settlement Made and Broken
From there, they went to Delos, where the oracle of Apollo advised them to seek their “ancient mother”. They took this to mean Crete, as Teucer had been a Cretan. Upon arriving at Crete, and beginning to settle. Aeneas was visited in a dream by an image of the Penates(city gods) of Troy. He was instructed that the oracle referred to Italy(Oenotria, Hesperia) So the Trojans again set sail.
Celaeno’s Prediction
Next, the Trojans encountered the Harpies at the Strophades Islands. There, the harpy, Celaeno, made the prediction that the Trojans would eat their tables with their meals before their wanderings would cease. This dire prediction lowered Trojan morale greatly.
Meeting an Old Friend
Sailing north along the western edge of Greece, the Trojans came to Chaonia, in Epirus, where a number of events had established Helenus, son of Priam, as king, with Andromache, widow of Hector, as his wife. The veterans of the fall of Troy enjoyed a visit, and the prophetic Helenus laid out the rest of Aeneas’s journey.
The Straits of Messina
Aeneas encountered Scylla and Charybdis just as the Argonauts, and Odysseus. Scylla was a terrible monster with six voracious dog’s heads, while Charybdis was a seething whirlpool. These two dangers were opposite each other on the straits of Messina. Following Helenus’s advice, Aeneas took the long way around to avoid Scylla, and tried to steer clear of Charybdis as well. Although Charybdis tossed them on the sea, the Trojans survived these dangers, and came near to the land of the Cyclopes.
A Classical Hitchhiker
As the Trojans came to the shores of the land of the Cyclopes, they encountered Achaemenides, whom Odysseus, in his haste, had left behind when he visited. Achaemenides warned them of the dangers of the land, and begged to be taken aboard.
The Hospitality of Acestes
At Drepanum, in Sicily, the Trojans were welcomed by king Acestes. Acestes had aided the Trojans, in some capacity, during the war, and was more than happy to entertain Aeneas. It was while enjoying the hospitality of Acestes that Aeneas suffered the loss of his father, Anchises. From Sicily, the Trojans set sail in calm winds for Italy.
The Anger of Juno
The Aeneid opens with an angry speech by Juno, explaining her hatred for the Trojans. She went to the kingdom of Aeolus, who ruled the winds, and asked him brew up a storm to sink the Trojan ships. He released the winds, who tossed the Trojans violently on the seas. Seeing the impending storm, Aeneas raised his hands to the sky, disconsolate, and uttered these words.
Neptune Saves the Trojans
Just when it appeared that the Trojans would be destroyed on the sea, the god, Neptune, raised his head above the waves. He scolded the winds, and calmed the seas. Venus, fearful of the fate of her son, visited Juppiter, to remind him of his promise to make Aeneas’s name great. He reassured her of his intentions, and gave her a brief account of the future greatness of Rome. The Trojans made land in Libya, in northern Africa, near the city of Carthage. There Aeneas roused the Trojans’ spirits with a stirring speech, and Venus visited the in disguise to let them know where they were, and to advise them to visit the nearby city of Carthage.
The History of Carthage
Dido was once the princess of Tyre, and was married to Sychaeus, whom she loved greatly. But her evil brother, Pygmalion, killed Sychaeus, and took control of Dido, treating her cruelly. With her sister, Anna, and a band of followers from Tyre, Dido fled to Libya, where they hoped to build a new city. She was tols that she might purchase all the land that she could fit under a cow’s hyde. Cutting the hide into strips, she surrounded the future citadel of Carthage, and purchased it. The city was originally named Byrsa, which means cow. As her power grew, the young men of the country sought to court the queen, Dido, but she refused their advances, honoring her commiment to Sychaeus.
Aeneas Visits the City of Carthage
When Illioneus had negotiated a meeting between Dido and Aeneas, he and a select group of his men went to Carthage. The group entered the town hidden in a magic cloud, and toured the city. This element of the story recalls the magical cloud with which Athena protected Odysseus in Scheria. Among the statues in the rising city, the Trojans see images from the war, and are greatly moved in recalling their sorrows. Among the group was Cupid, whom Venus sent in the place of Iulus, so that he might stir up Dido’s emotions. At a banquet, the wiles of Cupid stirred Dido’s passion for Aeneas, and she begged him to recall all of his travels. Aeneas reluctantly agreed, and equally reluctantly told his tale over the next two books of the Aeneid.
The Relationship is Consumated
After talking briefly to Anna, Dido assumes she has her blessing, and openly pursued Aeneas. Venus went to Juno, and feigned approval of the match, which also got the goddess’s help in the matter. On a hunting trip, Aeneas and Dido were forced to take shelter in a cave from a storm sent by Juno. There, the relationship was consumated, and Dido gave all of her attention to Aeneas, and the work of building her mighty city went undone. Aeneas forgot his purpose, and lingered too long in Carthage. Rumor spread the word all around Libya, and soon Iarbas heard the news. He had been refused suit to the queen, and raised his voice to Juppiter in protest.
A Visit from Mercury
Reminded of Aeneas’s purpose by a prayers of Iarbas, Juppiter sent Mercury down to earth with a message that the Trojans should go to Latium. After plans had been made, and Dido protested, Mercury returned and ordered Aeneas to set sail immediately, without bidding Dido a proper farewell. Following the will of the gods, Aeneas sailed away.
The Death of Dido
Heartbroken over the loss of Aeneas, Dido tricked Anna into preparing the funeral pyre upon which she was to die. Then, standing above the flames, she stabbed herself, and fell into the fire. As he and his followers gazed back at the shore, they unknowingly saw the smoke from the pyre on which Dido had killed herself in grief.
The Funeral Games of Anchises
Reaching Sicily again, the Trojans enjoyed the hospitality of Achates for a second time. Noting that Anchises had been dead exactly one year, they celebrate games in his honor. One notable pair of competitors was Nisus and Euryalus, whose friendship, established here, was to be revisited on the plains of Latium. Afterwards, as the Trojans sailed to Italy, the sea god, Neptune, desired a victim in exchange for their safe voyage. Palinurus, the helmsman, who had stayed up late manning the ship, was lulled into a trance by Somnus, and fell from the boat.
AVisit to the Underworld
According to the instructions of Helenus, Aeneas came to the town of Cumae, near Lake Avernus. There, he went to speak with the Sibyl, Deiphobe, who was to tell him of his fate, and guide him to the underworld. The Sibyl foretold the hard fight Aeneas would have in his new home, and told him to find a golden bough to carry as a present for Proserpina in the underworld. After appropriate sacrifices were made, they descended near the lake, and beheld the world below. There, in an emotional scene, he encountered the shade of Dido. He also saw the shades of many who had died at Troy. Finally, he came upon his father in hte Elysian fields. Anchises laid out to him the future greatness of the race Aeneas was to found, pointing out the souls of future historical figures. Other details of his journey are best left to a discussion of the ancient views of life after death.
Celaeno’s Prophesy Fulfilled
Sorrowfuly, Aeneas mourns the death of his nurse, Caieta, and named the port that his men waited at after her. Next, the Trojans sailed from Cumae to the mouth of the Tiber. There, they served a meal on flat bread plates. In their hunger, the Trojans even ate the bread plates the meal had been placed on. Iulus triumphantly announced that they had fullfilled Celaeno’s prophecy, and eaten their tables.
An Envoy to Latinus
A powerful king of the Latins was Latinus, who had a daughter, Lavinia. She was the appropriate age for marriage. Latinus’s queen, Amata, had long wanted Lavinia to be married to the Rutullian chieftain, Turnus. Latinus, obeying an old oracle, waited for a foreigner to take her hand. When Aeneas sent Illioneus, and a group of envoys to Latinus, he received them well, and offered Lavinia as a bride to Aeneas.
Juno Sows the Seeds of War
Juno now accepted the fate that Juppiter had ordained for the Roman people, but decided to delay it by prolonging their misery. She sentt Alecto, the Fury, to Italy to bring the Trojans into a war with the natives. First, Alecto fueled Amata’s anger over Latinus’s offer to Aeneas, and made her urge the Latin army to mobilize. The goddess also caused a skirmish between the Latin and Trojan troops. Alecto, disguised as Calybe, a priestess of Juno, then brought Turnus the news of the marriage, and stirred his anger.
Iulus Kills a Stag
There was a certain stag in the land of the Latins, which was loved by all the people. The pair, Tyrrhus and Silvia, had cared for it for many years. Guided by Alecto, Iulus wounded the stag, not knowing its importance. When the wounded creature made its way back home, a skirmish was incited. Almo, son of Tyrrhus, was killed, as was Galaesus, who stepped between the groups trying to stop the hostilities. The Trojans were on the brink of another war.
The Temple of Janus
Latinus refused to take any part in any war, and stepped down from the throne. Juno, eager to see bloodshed, went to the temple of Janus, herself, and opened the doors. This was a sign of war in the ancient customs of the Latins.
The Enemies of Aeneas
The following is a list of the chieftains who brought men to battle against the Trojans.
-Mexentius, from Ceare, in Etruria, along with his son Lausus. He was an evil man, called, by Vergil, a scorner of the gods. His cruelty was unmatched. Lausus wsa not so terrible as his father, but very loyal to him.
-Aventinus, a mighty son of Hercules, and a priestess, Rhea. He carried a shield which depicted the Hydra, a monster killed by his father.
-Catillus and Coras, two Greeks from Tibur.
-Caeculus, a son of Vulcan.
-Messapus, son of Neptune.
-Clausus the Sabine, ancestor of the Claudian gens.
-Halaessus, a former followeer of Agamemnon.
-Ufens
-Umbro, an agent of king Archippus of Matruvium.
-Virbius, son of Hippolytus and Aricia.
-Turnus, the scorned suitor of Lavinia. He led the Rutullian forces, brandishing a shield with an image of the Chimaera, a terrible monster killed by Bellerophon.
-Camilla, a Volscian maiden and Daughter of Metabus. She was a favorite of Diana.
Aeneas Seeks Italian Support
In a dream, Aeneas was visited by the spirit of the river Tiber, which flows by Rome. The spirit told him to seek help from Evander, a Greek who ruled the city of Palantium, on the future site of Rome. Aeneas was received well by Evander, who advised him to seek help from some of the Etruscan tribes who opposed the cruel Mezentius. Pallas, son of Evander, voluntered both to help the Trojans, and to escort Aeneas to Etruria.
Armor for Aeneas
Venus, concerned about her son, paid a visit to her old husband, Vulcan. With her feminine wiles, she convinced Vulcan to make Aeneas a suit of armor. After spending a night of passion with the goddess, Vulcan built the arms, decorating them with famous scenes fom the future history of Rome.
A Surprise Attack
While Aeneas is away, the Rutulians beseiged the Trojan camp. Following a directive of Aeneas, the Trojans refused to fight, and waited inside the gate for an entire day. During the night, the elderly Trojan, Nisus, offered to try to sneak through the Rutulin lines and get a message to Aeneas. Euryalus, the young friend of Nisus, offered to go as well. The two went through the Italian camp, killing a number of Trojans along the way. Euryalus foolishly donned the helmet of one of his victims. Later, when he was detected by the glow of torchlight off of his helmet, Euryalus was captured by the Italians. Nisus, who had managed to evade capture, broke in on hte Rutulians, and killed a number of them trying to save his friend. Eventually, he was overpowered, and both friends perished. Early the next morning, the heads of the two friends were placed on stakes, and displayed before the Trojan walls.
Iulus Comes of Age
Taunting the Trojans for their refusal to come out from behind the walls, Numanus incited the anger of Iulus. The young man drew his bow, and killed the haughty Rutulian from atop the walls. For the first time, he had drawn blood in combat. After this act, Iulus was visited by Apollo, wo congratulated him on his achievement, but warned him not tohave any more involvement in the dangerous war.
Turnus Within the Walls
Angry over the deaths of Nisus and Euryalus, and angered by the Rutullian taunting, the Trojans decided to open the gates. Italian men came flooding in to fight, but all except a small group were thwarted. Those who did get in fought the Trojans valliantly, until, at last, Turnus was the only one still alive. Nearly surrounded by the enemy, Turnus took to flight, and found escape only by diving into the Tiber. Although fully armed, he was able to swim to safety.
Aeneas Returns
Meanwhile, Aeneas had secured the support of the Etruscan subjects of Mezentius, who were revlting against his reagn of terror. In their ships, he was riding back to his camp when he encountered Cymodoe, a nymph who had formerly been one of his ships. She warnied him of the dangers awaiting him when he reached camp. The Etruscan ships landed and Aeneas rejoined his men.
The Death of Pallas
When the fighting resumed the next day, Pallas encountered Mezentius’s son, Lausus, in the fray. Pallas clearly outclassed the boy, and would have defeated him, had Turnus not intervened, killing Pallas. Adding insult to injury, Turnus despoiled the boy of his belt, and put it on himself. The anger of Aeneas was great, and the time of Turnus’s death would have been at hand. However, Juno saved Turnus one last time by causing him to chase a phantom image of Aeneas out of harm’s way.
The Anger of Mezentius
In the subsequent fighting, the angry Mezentius took out after his former subjects, dramatically reducing their numbers. Aeneas came to their rescue, and wounded Mezentius in a fight. Aeneas would have killed him had not Lausus intervened. In his anger, the hero killed the boy, but took pity on him afterwards, noting his bravery in defending his wicked father. The angry Mezentius rushed into battle to avenge his son, but was overpowered by Aeneas. When Aeneas had him beaten, and drew his sword to strike the death blow, Mezentius asked for Aeneas’s pity, and begged for proper burial for himself and Lausus. Aeneas responded with a blow to the neck of Mezentius, and stripped his body of his armor.
The Death of Camilla
The next day, the Latins send Drances to the Trojan camp as an emissary, that he might find a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Aeneas refused, but insisted that his quarrel had never been with the Latin people. Also, Venulus returned from his diplomatic mission with more bad news for the Latins. Diomedes would not help the Latins in the war. Aeneas seized the opportunity to march on Latium. The biggest battle of the day was between the Rutullian coalition’s cavalry, lead by Camilla, and the cavalry of Aeneas’s allies, lead by the noble king Tarchon. Camilla was killed in the battle by Arruns. He was subsequently killed by Opis, whom Camilla’s patron, Diana, had sent. Defeated, the Latin cavalry retreated to near Laurentium, and the two armies camped outside the walls.
The Death of Turnus
Finally, it was agreed that the conflict should be resolved by single combat between Aeneas and Turnus. After a long fight, Turnus had been beaten, and Aeneas stood above him, pondering the possibility of sparing his life. It was then that he saw the belt of Pallas around Turnus’s waist. Recalling his promise to Evender, Aeneas killed Turnus. This is the final event related by Vergil.
After the War
After the war, Aeneas took Lavinia as his bride. He founded the city of Lavinium near the sacked city of Laurentium, and ruled there. As a concession to Juno, the Trojans gave up their language and customs, and were assimilated into the Latin culture. Iulus took the reigns of power after his fathers died. He founded the city of Alba Longa, which was the birthplace of his descendants, the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus.
Extraneous Information