2.0: Food and Water During Cold-Weather Rituals

Although warm clothing and proper shelter are the first consideration in protecting against the effects of cold weather, adequate food and water consumption are next in importance. People need more food and water when it is cold, and the effects of dehydration and inadequate diet are as serious as in hot climates.

Understanding the Problems

People often become dehydrated during cold weather.
- Dehydration increases susceptibility to cold injuries.
- Dehydration reduces work capacity, appetite, alertness, and can lead to other medical problems such as constipation, kidney disorders and urinary infections.
The body's requirement for water is high during cold weather.
- Even in cold weather, sweating contributes to body water losses. Heavy clothing can cause overheating, especially during heavy work, which in turn leads to sweating. In cold dry conditions, sweat may evaporate readily without the individual sensing it.
- Unless water intake exceeds body water losses, dehydration will result.
Witches, like all people, tend to reduce their fluid intake during all outdoor rites, but especially during cold weather.
- Because camping food contains less water than home-cooked food, people take in less water with the food they eat, and they usually do not drink enough to compensate.
- Thirst is not an adequate indicator of dehydration. Most people do not feel thirsty until they are already significantly dehydrated, and thirst may even less noticeable in cold as in hot weather. People must drink even when they are not thirsty.
- When weather is particularly nasty, many people purposely allow themselves to become dehydrated to avoid having to leave comfortable shelter to urinate in an unheated outhouse or outdoor latrine. This is particularly likely for women.
- When temperatures are extremely low, water supplies may freeze, restricting water availability.
Water consumption requirements are more difficult to predict for cold-weather situations than hot, because the effects of the environment are greatly modified by an individual's own bodily responses, the workload and the amount of clothing worn. This individual variability affects the amount of water required to maintain proper hydration.
Caloric requirements of Witches are 25 to 50% higher during cold-weather rites than in warm or hot weather.
- People expend more energy during cold weather, due to wearing heavy cold-weather gear and the increased effort required for working or walking in snow or mud or for preparing ritual grounds in the snow and ice.
- The body uses more calories keeping itself warm when the weather is cold which also contributes to the increased energy requirement.
- Some Witches may wish to use a cold-weather outing as a means to lose weight. This is not a wise course of action, as hungry bodies chill more rapidly than well-fed bodies.
Ensuring that Witches in the cold and snow receive adequate amounts of hot food is a major challenge for coven leaders during cold-weather rites, especially when people are camped in tents far from kitchens where food can be heated and kept warm.
Other field-feeding problems often arise from freezing of food supplies (if not stored in a warm area) and a lack of readily available liquid water to rehydrate dry ingredients.

Table 6: Water Requirements Guidelines:

Light: Meditation, reading, sewing, cooking or serving meals: 6 litres / 6 quarts per person/day.
Moderate: Running on trail, dancing, stacking firewood, fetching water, building snow structures: 9 litres / 9 quarts per person/day.
Heavy: Walking in heavy snow, packing supplies along trail, chopping or splitting wood: 12 litres / 12 quarts per person/day.

Note: adjust these amounts according to individual needs. Dark urine indicates that you are not drinking enough water.

Coping with Food and Water Problems

People must drink even when they are not thirsty. Coven leaders should remind people of the need to drink at regular intervals.
- Inactive persons in comfortable climates need a minimum of 2 litres (2 quarts) of water a day to prevent dehydration.
- Using this as a basis, a general recommendation for participants in cold-weather rites is to consume about half a litre (half a quart, or half a standard water-bottle or canteen) of water with breakfast, lunch, dinner and before going to sleep at night, with an additional half-litre drunk every hour during the workday (more if the work is strenuous enough to cause the individual to sweat) for a total of at least 5 to 6 litres per day.
Hydration status can be monitored by noting the colour and volume of your own urine.
- Teach your covenmates that the lighter the urine colour, the better hydrated; and that dark yellow urine is a sure indicator that fluid consumption should be increased. An indelicate reminder is: "drink white, pee white!"
- Alcohol, coffee and tea, and soft drinks are not adequate substitutes for drinking-water. Alcohol and caffeine-containing beverages make dehydration worse. Soft drinks are poorly absorbed into the body. "Sports drinks" such as Gatorade are particularly invidious in field situations, since they contain so much salt that they increase the body's need for water. exacerbating the problem of maintaining proper hydration.
In extremely cold weather, below -23 C (-10 F), individual water-bottles and collective water jugs can freeze.
- It may be possible to wear a spare water bottle inside one's clothing, perhaps tied by a string around the neck. Water jugs should be kept inside heated vehicles or tents.
- At least one full water jug should be kept thawed at all times. When that container begins to be dispensed, another full container should be brought inside for thawing. It can take several hours to thaw these containers in heated vehicles or tents.
Unmelted snow and ice should not be consumed for water.
- Eating snow and ice irritates the mouth, wastes body heat, and if enough is consumed, body temperature can be lowered.
- When snow or ice is the only available source of water, it should be thawed before being consumed. Melted snow and ice should not be considered as potable water until appropriately purified.
There may be no better investment for the health, strength and morale of Witches participating in cold-weather campouts and outdoor rites than to provide ample amounts of hot palatable food supplemented with warm beverages. Proper meal planning is critical to successfully ensure that food is still hot when received by each person.
- Cold people will naturally consume more food and beverages if served hot. Therefore, providing hot food and beverages offsets the usual reduced consumption in the field, helps to make a warm and happy Witch.
- The 30-50% extra calories most individuals need per day during cold weather can be obtained by eating a "normal" breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and then supplementing with frequent snacks throughout the day.
- It is a good idea to save food items served with regular meals to be eaten as between- meal snacks. Keep items such as granola bars, candies, cookies, crackers, cheese and peanut butter spreads in your pocket, handy for frequent snacking.
- A good tip for participants in cold-weather campouts is to eat a large snack before they go to bed. This will help keep them warmer while they are sleeping which prevents shivering and allows sounder, more restful sleep.
- There are many urban legends concerning the best foods to eat during cold weather, but most people simply need to eat larger amounts of a balanced diet than they do in their own homes. Witches who must hike, ski or snowshoe for very long distances will benefit by concentrating on eating more starchy foods such as crackers, potatoes, cereals, bread and noodles.
Whenever possible, latrines should be sheltered to protect users from the wind and rain. Witches are less likely to restrict food and fluid intake, if they can use the latrines without being overly exposed to the elements. Here is where the old-fashioned outhouse, with a door that shuts out drafts, really earns its keep.
- Leave outhouse-seat lids up to prevent the formation of hoarfrost. Nothing is more disconcerting than facing a rime of frost crystals while preparing to take one's ease.

2.1: Food and Water for High-Altitude Campsites

This chapter discusses the problems inherent in providing adequate food and water supplies to Witches who are camped in high-altitude winter campsites. Things to consider include altitude-induced changes in nutritional requirements, and the effect that diet may have on tolerance to altitude.

Weight Loss Problems

Eating enough food is the most important nutritional factor in the mountains. Almost everyone who goes to high altitude loses weight. People lose both body fat and lean tissue, and at very high altitudes the weight loss is incapacitating. The loss of insulating fat decreases tolerance to cold temperatures. Accompanying the weight loss are fatigue, loss of strength, and psychological changes such as decreased mental alertness and morale. All of these can contribute to accidents and increased rates of illness.
Energy requirements for work at high altitude are 15 to 50% above sea-level requirements. The altitude, cold temperatures, and performance of physical activities over rugged terrain combine to increase energy expenditures to as much as 6000 calories per day.
Although energy expenditures increase, food intake usually decreases due to lack of appetite, limited availability of food, and difficulty in food preparation. During the first 3 to 4 days at high altitude, the headache, nausea, vomiting and pronounced anorexia of acute mountain sickness (AMS) interfere with food and fluid intake. Even after the symptoms of AMS subside, appetite remains depressed and it takes less food to reach a feeling of fullness - the higher the altitude, the greater the appetite depression.
Altitude reduces sense of taste and alters food preferences. These taste changes decrease tolerance to monotonous foods. People will often go hungry at high altitude rather than eat food which they do not crave. Many mountaineers report an aversion to fat and a preference for carbohydrates.
Women may have a biological advantage at altitude. Women, in general, suffer less severe symptoms of AMS and do not experience as great a depression in appetite and food intake as do their male counterparts.
Cooking times double for each 1500-metre (5000-foot) gain in elevation above sea level (since altitude lowers the boiling point of water). Cold ambient temperatures and thin air mean that food starts out colder and heat dissipates faster at altitude. Providing adequate amounts of hot food is a major challenge for coven leaders during high altitude excursions.

Inadequate Carbohydrate Intake

Carbohydrate is best energy source at altitude. Carbohydrates replace depleted muscle glycogen stores, prevent protein from being used as energy, and require less oxygen for metabolism. A high-carbohydrate diet can reduce the onset and severity of AMS and improve physical performance and mental efficiency. A low-carbohydrate diet can result in low blood sugar. Low blood sugar causes confusion, disorientation, and lack of co-ordination; these conditions can be extremely dangerous when combined with oxygen deficiency.
The optimal diet at altitude contains at least 400 grams of carbohydrate, accounting for 60 to 70% of dietary energy supply. Such a high carbohydrate intake is very difficult to achieve unless a concerted effort is made to consume high-carbohydrate foods. Women are at particular risk of inadequate carbohydrate intakes because of their relatively low calorie consumption.
The supposed taste preference for high-carbohydrate foods cannot be counted on to ensure an adequate carbohydrate intake. Not everyone exhibits this food preference, especially at lower altitudes. Many of the common snacks or 'junk food' items that Witches bring to the mountains are high in fat and, therefore, displace preferred carbohydrate from the diet. Typical high-fat foods that Witches pack are cheeses, summer sausage, and jerky.

Dehydration

It is easy to become dehydrated in high-altitude environments. Dehydration increases the risk of cold injury and exacerbates the fatigue, impaired judgement and apathy of hypoxia. The body's requirement for fluids is very high at altitude; often exceeding 12 litres of water per day. This is mainly caused by increased water losses from the lungs due to the increased ventilation of cold, dry air. There is also increased urinary loss of water due to the diuretic effects of altitude and cold. Sweating due to physical exertion adds to the water loss. Especially in the first few days at altitude, there may be significant body water losses due to the vomiting associated with AMS.

Diarrhoeal fluid losses may also be a factor. Giardia, an intestinal parasite that causes diarrhoea, is very common in the mountains. Also, the high magnesium content of glacier water and glacial-lake water, consumed as drinking water, can have a laxative effect.
Complicating the excessive water losses at altitude is the difficulty of consuming adequate fluids. The sensation of thirst does not keep pace with water loss. People might not feel like drinking, even when they are already dehydrated. AMS further exacerbates the dulling of the thirst sensation.
Safe drinking water is difficult to obtain in the mountains, because surface water sources are often frozen. In any case, because of the body's increased water requirement at altitude, a day's supply cannot be carried by a hiker. When temperatures are very low, water freezes in canteens, water bottles and water jugs, restricting water availability. It takes an exorbitant amount of time and fuel to melt snow in sufficient quantities (it takes 40 minutes to melt 4 cups of snow to make 1 cup of water).
All melted snow and ice, as well as water from streams and lakes, should be considered contaminated. Well water, if it is muddy, should also be considered contaminated. Because at altitude water boils before it reaches 100 C (212 F), the boiling temperature of water at sea level, it needs to be boiled longer than the 10 minutes necessary for sterilisation at sea level. This adds an additional minute for every 300-metre (1000- foot) gain in altitude. For example, at 1800 metres (6000 feet), water needs to be boiled for 16 minutes to be purified.

Gastrointestinal Complaints

Constipation is a common complaint during any extended outdoor ritual. It is especially prevalent at altitude where decreased oxygen slows down the function of the intestines and excessive fluid losses rob water from the colon. Emphasis on adequate fluid intake is the best preventative.
Many people complain of intestinal gas at high altitudes. Responses to particular foods are highly individual and, therefore, difficult to predict. Dehydrated foods high in carbohydrate tend to cause gas production and should be tried in small quantities until tolerance is established.

See Appendix D for further information on possible causes, common symptoms and suggested treatments for gastrointestinal complaints.

2.2: Guidelines for Mountain Cookery

There are several key issues which can be managed. First, the mountain cook must keep the people from losing weight. Second, high-carbohydrate menus should be planned and provided. Third, plenty of drinking water must be provided.

Prevent Weight Loss

Provide adequate calories.
- The suggested energy allowance for mountain camping is 6000 calories per day.
- Carbohydrate-containing beverage supplements such as pre-mixed cocoa can solve two problems by increasing both calorie and fluid intake at high altitude.
Serve at least two hot meals daily if at all possible. Witches will enthusiastically eat and drink more when they are served hot meals in a group setting.
Use a variety of foods and food items. Monotony is the biggest problem in mountain cookery. Any food becomes tiring with repeated consumption. Almost anything different helps to maintain food intake. Watch out for 'big pot' items - make sure that you have several main course items available, preferably from different ethnic cuisines.
Encourage small meals plus frequent snacks. Large meals are poorly tolerated at altitude. People often cannot consume enough food to meet their nutrient requirements in two or three meals a day. The cook should keep a snack basket handy - it should contain good food that can be carried in a Witch's pocket for later consumption at will.
Respect individual food preferences and tolerances. Do not force food on people who are nauseous or vomiting. Even favourite foods are repulsive at altitude if they are associated with the nausea and vomiting of AMS.

Maintain a High-Carbohydrate Intake

Emphasise high-carbohydrate foods (starches and sugars). Aim for an intake of at least 400 grams of carbohydrate per day. High-carbohydrate items include hot and cold breakfast cereals, juices and sugar-sweetened beverage base, fruits (dried, canned, or fresh), instant mashed potatoes, rice, couscous, noodles, crackers, Fig Newtons, and bran muffins. High-carbohydrate beverages may be better tolerated than solids and also serve to provide needed fluid.
Discourage people from eating high-fat, junk food snack items. Although high-fat foods are energy-dense, fat is not tolerated well at altitude and can worsen the symptoms of AMS. Fat requires more oxygen for metabolism than carbohydrate. Also, even a very lean person has adequate fat reserves to meet an energy deficit on a short-term basis; but the body has limited carbohydrate stores which must be replaced on a daily basis if the person is to stay in good shape. High-fat snack foods such as nuts, cheese, jerky, and sausage can displace preferred carbohydrates. If high-fat foods are tolerated and desired, they should be eaten with carbohydrate foods.
Have available easy-to-digest, high-carbohydrate foods for periods of AMS. Bland, easy-to tolerate foods that might appeal to Witches suffering from AMS include Sunny Boy cereal or oatmeal, instant mashed potatoes, instant rice, Ichiban noodles, Coyote pancakes, crackers, bread, and vanilla pudding.
- A liquid high-carbohydrate, glucose-polymer "sport drink" can help to ensure adequate calories and carbohydrate intake if solid foods become unpalatable. This is the only situation in which these drinks are useful in the mountains.
- Intolerance to solid foods is most likely to happen during the first 2 to 3 days at altitude when the symptoms of AMS are most severe or at extremely high altitudes.

Prevent Dehydration

Establish a program of regularly-scheduled, assertively-encouraged drinking. Remind Witches to drink even when they are not thirsty. Encourage Witches to drink one bottle of water every 3 hours so that they consume a minimum intake of 5 litres (quarts) of water each day. If the ritual schedule prevents frequent stops to drink, at least two large glasses of water drunk morning and evening can help compensate for limited fluid intake during the day. During periods of nausea, small, frequent sips of liquid are tolerated better.
Provide a variety of non-caffeinated beverages. Warm fluids are well received in cold temperatures. However, tea and coffee have a diuretic effect and promote fluid loss. In addition, excess caffeine can interfere with sleep that is already disrupted at altitude.
- Cocoa is a good warming beverage since it is low in caffeine and contains needed carbohydrate.
- Other beverage suggestions are hot cider or apple juice, hot Jell-O, or instant soups.
- An exception to the limitation of caffeine is when treating the incapacitating high-altitude headache. Many climbers successfully use a double strength mug of coffee to relieve the headache.

Points to Remember

Energy requirements are greater at altitude, therefore there is an increased requirement for the vitamins needed for energy metabolism.
Red blood cell count increases at altitude so the blood can carry more oxygen; however, unless there is a pre-existing iron deficiency, there are sufficient body iron stores to meet this sudden but short-term need.
Most of the weight loss commonly seen at altitude is not inevitable but is due to the reduced calorie intake. Weight loss can be prevented or slowed down by keeping calorie intake up.
Adequate protein is needed to protect against muscle loss, but protein requirements are not increased at altitude.
The best snacks for high altitude environments are high-carbohydrate, easy-to-prepare, easy- to-digest, taste good, and are worth their weight and space to carry. Suggested snacks are raisins and other dried fruits, yoghurt-covered raisins, banana chips, fruit chews, jelly beans, Gummi Bears, red and black licorice, granola bars, bagels, toaster pastries, and fig bars.
It's important to replenish glycogen stores on a daily basis. Four to 6 hundred grams of carbohydrates daily are adequate to continuously replace muscle glycogen stores.
People generally need at least 4 to 6 litres (quarts) of fluid per day when at altitude because of the extremely dry air. At least 1 litre (quart) of fluid must be consumed every 3 hours to meet the requirement.
The oedema often seen at high altitudes is not caused by sodium retention, so limiting salt/sodium intake is of no benefit.
For Witches suffering from AMS, bland, low-fat foods (such as crackers, bread, cookie bars, mashed potatoes, rice, cereals, and puddings) are generally better tolerated. Small amounts of food should be eaten frequently - every 2 hours. Encourage drinking as much fluid as can be tolerated.

Table 7: Dos and Don'ts for Mountain Nutrition

DO monitor weight loss if possible.
DON'T use the excursion as an opportunity to lose weight.
DO eat a high, complex-carbohydrate diet, and eat portions of many dishes.
DON'T skip meals.
DO serve at least two hot meals per day.
DON'T fill up on high-fat foods.
DO provide food variety and plan snacks.
DON'T force food when nauseous or vomiting.
DO drink 4 to 6 quarts of non-caffeinated beverages per day & monitor colour/volume of urine for dehydration.
DON'T drink unpurified water or melted snow.
DO discourage high-fat, junk food snack items and alcohol consumption.
DON'T restrict water intake in order to "save it for later" or avoid having to urinate.

edited by: Brigantia Stone
updated: October 15, 1998; minor corrections 1998 November 12
document: WM216PT2
GWI: WM 21-6-0/2

You may go ahead to:

You may go back to: