west as "safety valve" for immigrants, growing cities

Homestead Act-1862:up to 160 acres for minimal fees w/agreement to live and clear the land (or $1.25 acre)

Act spurs thousands west, though many taken in by corrupt schemes

long drives: open plains, RR's facilitate cattle industry

Homesteaders, larger agricultural establishments, invention of barbed wire physically closed the open space of the west

"wild" atmosphere of boom mining and cattle towns gives way to law and order as connectedness increased

Frederick Jackson Turner (historian) in 1893: frontier is closed, had shaped, will always shape American culture

Why "cultural clash?"

Strong differences in perspectives of two cultures: religion, approach to nature, social organization

Tradition of official American hostility between whites and Indians

western expansion leads to intensifiaction of hostility: builds upon hostility already in place from earlier forced migrations & bogus "treaties:

RR's take toll-infringement on Indian lands

slaughters on both sides feeds hostility: Sand Creek, (1864); Fetterman (1866); Little Big Horn (1876); Wounded Knee (1890)

Rise to prominence: aggressive, nationalist Indian leaders: Chief Joseph (Nez Perce); Sitting Bull & Crazy Horse (Sioux); Geronimo (Apache): coordinated efforts vs. cavalry

Buffalo killed in large number: herds run out of space to roam

By mid-1880's most tribes severely weakened, defeated

Dawes Act passed - 1887 - stipulations:

dissolves commuity-owned tribal lands

government takes over land for 25 years

citizenship for Indians & provisional ownership of up to 160 acres

Dawes Act - analysis: forced assimilation: desire to "civilize" Indians: education, religion - ultimately, Indian lose most of tribal lands

significant to poor status of reservations today