Neolithic
(5,500-2,500 BP)
Topics covered in this section:
Introduction
Division between Mesolithic and Neolithic is blurred by regional
differences. Recently, archaeologists have had to change some of their
views about what constitutes a typical Neolithic site.
Markers
The use of pottery, sedentism of agrarian societies, and complex social
organization was once thought to be the sole domain of Neolithic populations.
These are now known to have been present in the later Mesolithic as well.
Similarly, farming was once thought to be a characteristic Neolithic
activity. Now we know that many early Neolithic groups made extensive use
of wild, rather than domestic, resources. Thus, Neolithic peoples might be
more appropriately described as complex hunter-gatherers, rather than
farmers.
Regional Development
In Europe, there are three main regions that exhibit distinctive
development patterns of Neolithic societies:
- Southeastern Europe, up to the Hungarian plain, was most likely
colonized in a gradual progression from south to north.
- The Mediterranean, from Italy and Sicily westward, may have been a
series of sea-borne colonizations.
- In central and western Europe, from the edge of the Hungarian plain to
the river valleys of northern France (but excluding the North European
Plain, southern Scandinavia, and the British Isles), the colonization
may have been swifter than in other parts of Europe.
People
In the 17th century Hobbes described Neolithic people as "solitary,
poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Though typical of archaeologists of
that time, he was considerably wide of the mark in his assessment.
Neolithic people were technically expert in the art of foraging and
hunting. They knew and understood the various dietary and medicinal value
of specific plants. They were skilled at manipulating, and perhaps even
controlling, the native resources at their disposal, such as plants and
animals. And all of the archaeological evidence indicates that they
lived intensely social lives.
Many of their social values were based around their sedentary existence.
Of importance to their communities were the acquisition and storage of
produce and goods, the maintenance of close kin groups, respect for their
ancestors, and the symbolic division of the world into constituent parts.
Still, like their predecessors for hundreds of thousands of years, the
Neolithic colonizers who came from Anatolia and the Near East occupied a
relatively empty European landscape.
Settlements
Radiocarbon dates, which are admittedly inadequate in number, suggest
that settlement took place earlier in the south (eg, Greece, Bulgaria, and
southern Serbia) and moved steadily northward from there (eg, northern
Serbia, Croatia, Romania, and southern Hungary).
Neolithic sites are defined by the presence of:
- Polished stone artifacts
- Figurines crafted from fired clay
- Cultivation of wheat and barley crops
- Domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs
- Styles and patterns found in their pottery
- Timber framed buildings arranged in small clusters
The same or similar characteristics can be found from Greece to the
southern part of the Hungarian plain, and on either side of the Carpathians.
The sites found so far can be divided into two general settlement phases,
covered in the following sections.
First Phase (c.7000-5500 BC)
During the first settlement phase, between about 7000 and 5500 BC, we
find some short-term camps, non-permanent herding locations, and other
specialized activity sites.
Permanent Houses
Permanent "houses" or living spaces predominate. They were solidly built
and available for permanent occupancy.
The basic architectural unit consisted of a single-room house, squarish
to rectangular, and usually constructed from a wooden frame with a daub or
clay covering. Examples up to 12m long are known, but smaller sizes were
also common. They usually had a single entrance with a clay oven or hearth
on the back or side wall.
Houses were usually free-standing, but several mud-brick "apartments"
were interconnected. They were usually closely spaced; isolated houses were
rare. Sometimes houses were arranged in rows, with narrow lanes between
them.
Villages
Houses were generally arranged in clusters, which we might call hamlets
or villages today. Some of the largest settlements had about 50-60 houses
in the cluster.
Settlements were usually separated from neighboring settlements by a
few kilometers. This allowed the villages to take advantage of the local
resources such as nearby soil for cultivation and grasses for grazing.
Those villages near rivers shared common fishing and hunting areas.
Graves
Most known graves were located within the settlement, often in pits
beside the houses. This placement likely emphasizes the importance of
a particular household in the community.
Tells
Sites were often used and reused over and over, creating tells (mounds)
where building materials and detritus accumulated. The size of the tells
varies widely.
Second Phase (c.5500-5000+ BC)
During the second settlement phase, between about 5500 and 5000 BC and
beyond, we find numerous known sites. The archaeological map of their
distribution is vast. Within the span of perhaps 50 generations or so,
Neolithic communities had become well established in the landscape.
The houses during this phase were much larger than before, with evidence
showing the popularity of dividing the interior of the house into several
rooms.
Villages
Large clusters of homes appear to have become preeminent in this phase.
Large sites, whether new or reused, emphasize a higher concentration of
people as well as productive capacity. Trade and exchange appear to be
the source of variety within the community.
Settlements don't appear to show internal differentiation. That is,
there doesn't appear to be any evidence of class distinction, which might
warrant a larger house than those of the neighbors.
Regions of Europe that were previously avoided or little inhabited
now show signs of agricultural settlement -- such as the lower Danube
or Dobrudgja in Romania, the fringes of the Carpathian basin around the
Hungarian plain, the more westerly regions of Bosnia, and the river
valleys on the edge of the steppe zone northeast of the Carpathians.
Extensive Trade
Copperworking, which began in this phase, contributed modest objects
that were suitable for trade. The objects were beaten into shape from
native copper or smelted from ores and then beaten into shape. They include
beads, pins, hooks, and awls.
Indeed, trading over extended distances occurred. For example, Tisza
sites on the Hungarian plain were able to acquire flint, obsidian, stone
axes, and fine pottery manufactured by the neighboring Bukk group. Other
items were acquired from the upland fringes up to 150km away.
Peaceful Coexistence
There is no clear evidence that most tells were defended or fortified,
or even enclosed by walls. The superficial picture is of a well-ordered,
peaceful landscape.
There are definite indications of common traditions of religious or
spiritual beliefs among the community. Figurines are more varied than in
the past. An abundance of these figurines at the larger tells suggests
an emphasis on cult and ritual.
Farming
European farming societies began forming back in the Mesolithic and
endured for some 3000 years, between 7000 BC and 4000 BC. In the Near East,
on the other hand, cereal farming can be traced back to 7000 BC.
In Europe, the major growth of farming occurred around 5500 to 5000 BC.
Shortly thereafter, cereal staples such as wheats and barleys appeared.
Since these crops were not native to Europe, this indicates that the
technology was borrowed from the Near East.
Common Crops
Some common crops found in Neolithic Europe include, but are by no
means limited to, the following:
- Wheats.
Emmer, einkorn, bread, and club wheats. Emmer and einkorn wheat lack
gluten in their flour and cannot be baked into anything lighter than
biscuits. Bread and club wheat are hexaploid, or genetically more
complex and are suitable for baking.
- Barleys.
Two-row and six-row, both hulled and naked.
- Legumes.
Peas, lentils, and vetches.
- Wild plants.
Acorns, olives, pistachios, cherries, plums, and many others.
Animal Husbandry
Along with agricultural pursuits, Neolithic settlements show many
signs of animal husbandry of domesticated animals. Cattle and pigs,
native to Europe, were domesticated. And sheep and goats, most likely
introduced from the Near East, were raised. Dogs were also kept, probably
for protection and for help in herding.
Why Farming?
Several possibilities exist to explain the sudden interest on the
part of Europeans to establish farming communities. One possibility is
that it was a result of colonization by incoming Near Eastern migrants
seeking new land for their burgeoning populations.
Another possibility is that it might be a result of the gradual
transformation of the native society, already sufficiently developed
technically and predisposed to change.
Or more likely, it was a mixture of both possibilities, since there
doesn't appear to have been a uniform process involved, either in the
establishment or in the subsequent development of farming societies.
In southeast Europe, colonization seems to be the most likely
possibility. By around 5000 BC, a complex physical and social environment
existed, indicating an influx of people from the outside.
In the Mediterranean region, the native communities were probably
the major players in this time period and the pace of conversion to
farming was much slower than in southeast Europe.
In central and western Europe, colonization is again likely. From
about 5500 BC, farming communities established a network of hamlets and
small villages.
Pottery
The style and decoration of pottery objects varied from site to site,
suggesting a form of social identity associated with the designs. The
patterns might also imply that different settlements enjoyed various
levels of status.
Figurines
The style of fired-clay figurines varied from site to site. Many of the
figurines were animals or anthropomorphic in detail.
The figurines that depict humans were usually female figures, generally
small, and usually standing, squatting, or sitting. Their arms may be
outstretched, folded, or with hands held on their hips. Often the heads
were elongated or rod-like, with faces that are rather bland (or shown
wearing a mask). However, the lower limbs and sexual parts were often
quite exaggerated.
Archaeologists often interpret the figurines as having religious
significance, though archaeology cannot verify what was in the minds of
Neolithic farmers. But certain thems tend to stand out.
The world appears to be categorized into distinct, constituent parts:
- Human vs. animal
- Wild vs. tame or domesticated
- Human (of this world) vs. divine (not of this world)
The figurines are often found conspicuously placed outside or inside
houses. And, as mentioned earlier, the primary emphasis seems to have
been on female reproduction.
Burials
Most burials continue to be within the boundaries of settlements. The
off-site cemeteries in Dobrudja are one exception. And there are several
small cemeteries immediately adjacent to the large Tisza sites on the
Hungarian plain.
Romanian Archaeology
We know that a number of migratory Indo-Europeans passed through, and
often stayed in, the region that is now Romania. Some of the settlements
from the Neolithic period in Romania have been studied at length.
Cucuteni Culture
The Cucuteni (final "i" is silent in the Romanian language) were located
in Moldavia and eastern Transylvania. Their settlements, which lasted for
more than 1000 years, are spread over an impressive area of more than 350,000
sq. km. (a little more than 135,000 sq. mi.).
Cucuteni settlements contain signs of a hierarchical organization. There
are often large cult centers, fortifications, or individual villages. Tribal
centers played a role in the control and movement of raw materials such as
salt, flint, copper, or pottery.
The Cucuteni created pottery with a distinctive pattern of striped,
polychrome designs which is easily identified as representative of the
people as a group. The patterns often represent solar symbols in the form
of concentric circles.
Four "sacred" numbers appear in numerous cult centers: 3, 7, 4, and 6.
Their pantheon is dominated by what has been termed the "Big Goddess,"
the mistress of life and death. She is often depicted along with a "tree
of life" symbol or with animal symbols of fertility sich as snakes, fish,
and so on. Numerous objects portray androgynous representations of the
sun, moon, or planets.
There are far fewer male statuettes than female. Some of these male
figurines have chest bands or hip bealts, probably an indication of their
social status. Especially prominent is the male figure that often
accompanies the Big Goddess, who together form the divine couple.
Boian Culture
The Boian culture, 4000 to 3800 BC, built the earliest known sanctuary
on the plains region of southern Romania.
Hamangia Culture
The Hamangia culture, contemporaries with the Boian culture, lived in
the region around the Danube delta. They created small marble statues,
the most famous of which is called "The Thinker and His Woman," which
depicts a man sitting with his head resting in his hands and a woman
sitting beside him.
Vinca Culture
At Tartaria, in Transylvania, archaeologists have uncovered numerous
anthropomorphic figurines manufactured by the Vinca culture. Many of the
figurines, mostly seated, have stubby arms and stylized, abstract legs.
The bodies display incised and painted decoration. Their faces are quite
exaggerated, often almost triangular in shape, with prominent noses and
large eyes, giving them a cat-like (or UFO alien-like) appearance. Holes
have been "drilled" into many of them to allow attachments.
One figurine has a deformed head and the impression of scars, which
aren't mere ornamentation. Speculatively, it might be a form of "voodoo"
doll used in black magic.
But perhaps the most significant find has been the discovery of several
unbaked clay tablets, each bearing a series of incised enigmatic symbols
and abstract representations of one or more animals. The writing on the
Tartaria tablets has been dated to 4800-4500 BC, much earlier than any
of the tablets in Sumeria.
Scholars are asking if the tablets represent a language or an art form.
Throughout history, signs have been used in everyday life much more
frequently than in ritual. However, practically every single household
contained incribed objects, where many of the signs and sign groups are
uniform in nature. All the characteristics you'd expect to find in the
organized writing of a language.
The skeleton of a woman was found near the "pit" where the tablets
were found. She was 50-55 years old and was about 1.47m (4.8 ft) tall.
Radiocarbon dating places her death at c.6200 BP.
Tisza Culture
The Tisza culture settled on the Hungarian plain just north of
Romania. Many of the objects recovered from the site display prominent
decorations made by incising abstract human features. Many similarly
decorated anthropomorphic vessels have been uncovered.
Vadeasa Culture
The Vadeasa culture left behind pottery decorated with anthropomorphic
themes which predate similar Trojan themes.
Bechtel Discovery
More recently, vestiges of other Neolithic cultures have been unearthed.
For example, in a news story dated 14 Oct 2004, construction workers from
the U.S. firm, Bechtel, stumbled upon Neolithic ruins that are more than
6000 years old. They were building a highway that cuts through the historic
region of Transylvania, between Brasov in central Romania and the town of
Bors on the Hungarian border.
The highway had already caused environmental concerns. In May, on a
visit to Romania, England's Prince Charles commented that he was worried
about possible environmental damage from building the highway, which goes
through Transylvanian villages that are classified as historically
important by the UN organization UNESCO.
Now that the construction crew has uncovered the remains of several
Neolithic houses, a funeral stone, and numerous pieces of pottery, it
seems that Prince Charles was right. The highway, which is to be 415 km
(250 miles) long, is estimated to cost 2.5 billion euro (3 billion dollars)
to build and was scheduled to be finished in 2012. Now it looks like that
date will be delayed.
Go Elsewhere
At this point, you have a couple of options:
Enjoy your stay and have a great day!
|
