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The Diary of Anne Frank: A Biography and Historical Background

Earliest Life:

More difficult than condensing an author's biography is the prospect of enlarging upon the tragically short one of Anne Frank. Born in Frankfort am Main, Germany, on June 12, 1929, Annelies Marie Frank was the second daughter of a well-to-do middle-class Jewish family. Her sister Margot was three years her senior. Otto Frank, Anne's father, was eleven years older than his wife, and both parents had come from very wealthy backgrounds. The Frank family lived in Germany resisting the growing pressures of Adolf Hitler's campaign to wipe out the Jews until 1933, when it was no longer tolerable nor safe to remain there.

Emigration To Holland:

When Anne was four years old, her family moved to Amsterdam where they lived quite pleasantly among the sympathetic Dutch, Christians and Jews alike, for the next several years. In business, Mr. Frank prospered as Managing Director of the firm Travies N.V., serving also as a partner in the firm of Kolen and Company. The Franks made many friends, some of whom were later to risk their lives to protect the family when Hitler eventually spread his ugly program for the Jews into Holland. Anne attended the Montessori School in Amsterdam for the next six years. Then it was made apparent to her and the other Jewish children that somehow they were different and would thenceforth have to attend special schools. The transfer of Anne to the Jewish Lyceum in 1940 marks the beginning of a period of increasing travail for the Franks and others against whom Hitler's anti-Jewish laws were directed. For in May of that year the Nazis invaded the Netherlands, and in a matter of days, all Dutch resistance was crushed save for extremely risky underground activities.

Nazi Occupation:

The discriminatory regulations of the Nazis restricted virtually every privilege of the Jews, from transportation and education, to entertainment and commerce. In fact, all Jews were designated as a separate people by a special law requiring them to wear a yellow six-pointed Star of David which was to be prominently displayed at all times. The Franks were well aware of the temper of the times. Although they continued for two more years to live what seemed a normal life on the surface, plans for a change were carefully being calculated by Mr. Frank and a close group of friends. Each day strands of an invisible web were being woven about the group in preparation for their eventual "disappearance." The choice would soon have to be made-whether to yield to arrest and ultimate removal to concentration camps, or to take matters into their own hands and hide, as flight from Nazi-infested Europe was no longer possible. With the Gestapo (Hitler's police force) stalking the streets of Amsterdam in search of Jewish prey whom they "summoned" on the flimsiest pretext, July, 1942, brought sad but swift fulfillment to the Frank's plans.

In Hiding:

With moments to spare, the family embarked upon their last free walk along the streets of Amsterdam. In a seemingly ordinary manner so as not to rouse suspicion, they greeted people they knew along the way. Carrying ordinary looking satchels filled with immediate personal belongings, they journeyed in a pouring summer rain the short distance to their hiding place. On July 9, 1942, they ventured to a building located on the Prinsengracht, one of the city's canals. At the rear of the third floor was a disguised apartment in which the Franks and another family named Van Daan remained in self-imposed exile for the next two years. It is during this period that Anne wrote her diary which reveals not only an extraordinary literary talent for one so young, but which has provided the world with a valuable firsthand document of World War II.

Discovered:

On August 4, 1944, the Gestapo raided the apartment hide out. They searched the quarters demanding for confiscation anything which they considered to be of value. The Diary was spilled out of Otto Frank's brief case along with other papers the Gestapo considered unimportant. It lay on the floor among a pile of books and papers until it was found later by friends who preserved it. All of the occupants of the apartment were arrested and sent to German concentration camps. Of the two families only Otto Frank survived. Two friends who had served as links to the outside were also arrested and sent to Dutch concentration camps. Enduring their imprisonment, they were able to return to their families. Anne herself died at Bergen-Belsen, a German concentration camp, in March, 1945, just two months before both her sixteenth birthday and the Allied liberation of Holland.

How And Why It Happened:

If there is any explanation possible for the atrocities against humanity committed during World War II by the Hitler Regime (the Third Reich), it lies in historical facts which combined freakishly to produce such acts on the parts of many people. An understanding is required of social and economicconditions which constitute the underlying causes of war before the immediate causes can begin to be understood. And, once war has begun, the actions of all involved people often lie beyond moral or rational considerations. There is no suitable answer to "why" in cases like that of Anne Frank and her family. Man's inhumanity to man can never be explained away. Nevertheless, a brief look at the conditions which gave rise to a "Fuehrer" (leader) like the fanatical Adolf Hitler will help the approach to an interpretation of that historical phenomenon.

Historical Background

Economics:

Although all European countries were hard hit after 1929 by a general economic depression, the plight of Germany was by far the worst. The Versailles Treaty of 1919, which ended World War I, had left Germany economically crippled as punishment for being guilty of the war according to the victor nations. Stripped of her colonial possessions and internationally humiliated, she was made responsible for the war debt by means of enormous and somewhat unrealistic reparations payments to the Allies (Serbia, France, Belgium, England, The United States, Japan, and Montenegro). While countries such as England and the United States sought a compromise in the making of payments so that Germany could restore a degree of economic health, France and Belgium punished their neighbor for defaulting in payments by occupying the industrial section of Germany known as the Ruhr. World economic conditions were such that strikes occurred among workers of all nations. When German workers acted similarly, production of goods ceased, and Germany declared bankruptcy. To alleviate the situation, an international committee was set up to consider the problem. The result was the adoption of the Dawes Plan which enabled Germany to borrow money from other countries and thus to stabilize finances. When she did again begin to make reparations payments, France and Belgium withdrew their troops from the Ruhr. There was still considerable pressure on Germany to keep up in her payments to the other Allies who owed money to the United States for loans made to finance World War I. Thus, Germany seemed to be in an interminable economic bind.

Politics:

The trend in Europe after World War I was one of liberalism and democratic government. In 1918 the imperial system ended in Germany when local princes abdicated. In 1919 the formation of the Weimar Republic was accomplished by the ratification of a democratic constitution. This did not guarantee peace from within, as factions on the Left and Right still struggled for power in the weaknesses of the infant Republic. There was considerable dissatisfaction over the humiliations suffered by Germany in accepting the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Revolts and other attempts to overthrow the government were common. By 1928 much of this inner turmoil had been settled, and Germany was beginning to see daylight with Paul von Hindenburg, initially a capable man, as President. After the onset of the 1929 depression, once again extremist groups rattled the political stability of the barely recuperating Republic of Germany.

Hitler's Rise:

Similar to cases of other newly democratized European countries, Germany's story of how a dictatorship was born is a typical example. Economic threats caused panic among rapidly splintering groups of citizens whose only thought in common was to find security and stability. Such social and economic conditions brought about a loss of faith in the Weimar Republic and the capability of its aging President Hindenburg. Renewed bitterness against the Versailles Treaty which he continued to support paved the way for the spread of a fanatical new nationalism. Embodying this spirit was Adolf Hitler, a maladjusted World War I veteran who harbored a maniacal hatred for democracy, trade unions, Jews and Communists in particular. He had an almost equal dislike for Socialists and Catholics, as well as any other elements or individuals not of purely German (Aryan) origin. His party, the Germany National-Social Workers' (NAZI), had attempted once before in 1923 to seize power from the shaky young Weimar Republic, but the plot had failed and he had been imprisoned. In 1929, however, conditions were ripe for such a man as Hitler, whose almost hypnotic powers of persuasion could sway a frightened and disillusioned people. The Nazi Party's growth was spectacular, and by 1933 Hitler had gained enough popular support for a reluctant Hindenburg to entrust him with the post of Chancellor. From this point on the usurpation of control was relatively easy, and Hitler lost no time in establishing his dictatorship.

Hitler's Program:

Hitler's avowed purpose was to re-establish Germany's place of power and prestige among the nations of the world and to restore economic stability by reviving industry and agriculture. His terms for achieving this were based on three main objectives: 1) the negation of the Versailles Treaty; 2) The creation of a strong economic and military Germany; and 3) the elimination of Communist, Jewish, and all other "non-German" interests. This program appealed widely to a basically proud people brought to its knees by international degradation and economic chaos. German youth was especially receptive to Hitler's plans and worked enthusiastically toward his goals, for they had known little if anything of German glory in their lifetimes. If members of the older generation were reluctant to embrace the fanatical surge of this new nationalism, they maintained an attitude of indifference or passive acceptance for a while, feeling that social and economic conditions warranted improvement by almost any workable means. Soon it became apparent that the only attitude possible under the Hitler regime was acceptance and willing participation whether out of enthusiasm or fear. For in June, 1934, the people were taught an object lesson in the execution of some few hundred suspected by the Fuehrer of opposition to his program.

Hitler's Information Service:

Hitler's public relations policy was to seem to his people to be everywhere at once. Enlarged photographs of the Fuehrer were almost inescapable as were "swastikas" (the Nazi emblem). Hitler's propaganda machine, administered by Dr. Joseph Goebbels, was a most important tool for keeping the people informed. Having seized control of mass communications early in his dictatorship, he had the twofold power of being able to suppress whatever information might threaten the Reich's policies and to spread those ideas which would benefit them. In these ways he forced adherence to his program by controlling the thinking of an entire nation. As time went on, the methods and activities of the Nazis developed unbelievably inhuman aspects. Nevertheless, such distorted information was disseminated concerning these horrors that an entire populace was only vaguely aware of what was actually happening. The outside world was mystified. Except for rumors, only Hitler and his closest henchmen who were sworn to secrecy knew the lurid certainties of what was in store for those out of favor with the Reich.

Prejudice And Persecution:

Hitler was a powerful orator whose extraordinary ability to rouse people to frenzied action remains an undisputed fact. He was shrewd enough to disguise those aspects of his personality which have since been recognized as sick by exploiting nationalistic sentiment. He was clever enough to make his own distorted desires appear to be the goals of Germany. His ability to twist historical facts enabled him to convince the masses that Jews, Communists, Socialists, and Catholics were responsible for Germany's misfortunes. Jews, he maintained, had encouraged acceptance of the Versailles Treaty in order to protect their economic interests abroad and were greedy enough to be able to wring profit from the war debt. He emphasized the fact that Jews were not truly of German blood, and could never be considered loyal Germans with a history of wandering behind them. The Communists were Hitler's political opponents, and he stressed their affiliations with the Soviets, thus making them into agents of foreign interests. Socialists, too, as part of an international movement were discredited and vilified. The Catholics' religious loyalty to Rome was the unfavorable issue he exploited where that group was concerned. Hitler's aim was to "purify" the German population of these and all non-Aryan elements. By attributing the ills of the nation to them he efficiently created these groups into the collective national scapegoat. With the temper of the people sufficiently inflamed, he could do pretty much as he chose with the scapegoat and count on adequate support. What deeper prejudices lay behind his policies is a matter about which there has been much speculation.

Foreign Policy And War:

What information leaked out of Germany concerning internal affairs horrified the world, but no one was terribly eager to antagonize this powerful and frightening dictator so long as he kept his activities confined within the boundaries of his own country. Appalled by bits and pieces of news about the fate of a few unfortunate individuals, the Allies were more concerned by the disturbing advent of totalitarian governments in Italy, Russia, and Japan.These dictatorships, along with Germany, threatened to upset the status quo in international affairs. It was still hoped that the League of Nations could preserve the peace and the balance of power in Europe. The Geneva Disarmament Conference of 1932-1934 was intended to correct the failure to disarm of those nations who had promised to do so in the Versailles Treaty. So alarmed at Hitler's rise to power and the menace presented by the potential military strength of the Third Reich, these nations could not come to any terms of agreement on arms reduction at the sacrifice of their safety. In 1933, Hitler blasted all hopes for an easing of European tensions by withdrawing from both the Geneva Conference and the League of Nations. The withdrawals were his means of retaliation for a refusal of his request for a revision of the Versailles Treaty. In 1935 he boldly announced Germany's intention to rearm. Still nervous about the Reich's lack of a strong European ally, he held his aggressive aspirations in check until an agreement known as the "Axis" was established with Italy in 1936. Nazi infiltration into countries where German minorities existed had been quietly in progress since 1933. Hitler's aim was to unite all German peoples into a "Greater Germany," comprised of the German-populated areas of other European countries, and ultimately to wield total authority himself from Berlin. In March, 1938, Austria became a German province. In September of that year he annexed the Sudeten portion of Czechoslovakia, proclaiming in April, 1939, another portion of that country as a German "protectorate." Having agreed to divide Poland with Russia in a non-aggression pact, in September, 1939, Germany invaded that nation, whom France and Britain had agreed to protect. The result of the invasion of Poland was the declaration of war on Germany by the French and British. In April, 1940, Hitler's troops accomplished the occupation of Denmark and Norway in a single day. In May, the Germans invaded Belgium and the Netherlands. The Dutch resistance lasted four days, whereupon Queen Wilhelmina and the government fled to seek asylum in England. The Belgians held out for eighteen days under King Leopold. By June, Hitler had subdued France and had established the Occupational (Vichy) Government of Marshal Petain. Although not so called until December, 1941, these battles constituted the early stages of World War II.

Pinpointing The Jews:

As early as 1933, the Jews in Germany were victimized by discriminatory legislation by which their position degenerated over the next six years from secondary citizenship to non-citizenship, and finally, to virtual non-existence. The "Jewish Question," as Hitler referred to it, was an issue carried over from the early days of the Nazi Party's program of 1920. More than simply an aspect of early Nazism, to Hitler, a solution to the "Jewish Question" was a goal of paramount importance. As anti-Jewish legislation became an increasing reality in Germany from 1933 to 1938, many Jews left the country early in the decade with relative freedom. More Jews, however, remained there in a fool's paradise, thinking that the presently lenient emigration policy would permit them to leave if and when they chose to do. On the basis of family ties, wealth, possessions, and careers, there was less of a desire to emigrate than there was to endure current discrimination. Many Jews even looked upon Germany as their homeland, and felt, as "true" Germans, that the revolutionary measures of the Nazis were only temporary.

The First Solution:

In 1938 the "First Solution" to the "Jewish Question" was enacted with startling swiftness. In a word, it was expulsion. The wealthier Jews had little difficulty in leaving; the poorer ones could not so easily afford the costs of proper documents or transportation. With a fortnight allotted them to emigrate, these less affluent people looked for guidance to Jewish "functionaries" who were working with the Nazis on the problem of relocation.

The black-marketing of passports was on the rise, as were bribery, forgery, theft, and other measures of desperation necessarily taken by those with a price on their heads. Some Jews attempted to renounce their religion, either by conversion or by falsified birth certificates. Others were willing to remain in Germany whatever the penalty if just one family member's salvation could be acquired. Escape by underground methods became more and more frequent.

In the early days of emigration, Jews had found an area of relocation to be more or less a matter of choice. The selection of neighboring nations such as Holland, Belgium, France, and England was both logical and commonly practiced. Some scattered even to Scandinavia or British-held Palestine. There were those who ventured as far as Canada, South America, and the United States. Some difficulties were connected with the immigration laws of their adopted countries, but for the most part, the early emigres were rather easily resettled. After the 1938 decree, the wealthier Jews found relocation more difficult, but the poorer Jews were faced not only with lack of funds for transportation, but they had virtually no place to go. The officials of the Jewish communities, Jews themselves, attempted to select a destination arbitrarily which, as often as not, was felt by those upon whom the edict had been thrust to be as unpalatable as remaining in Germany. Torn between the alternatives offered by their own leaders and the Nazis, these individuals were helpless and stranded.

The Second Solution:

With still too many Jews remaining in Germany to suit him, Hitler enacted what he termed the "Second Solution." Between 1938 and 1939 those who could procure no papers or find no place of relocation or were still in Germany for some other reason were sent to concentration camps until their fate could be decided. Many Jews took to hiding, sometimes aided by sympathetic friends and neighbors. The Jewish "functionaries" who felt exempt from danger by virtue of their work for the Reich, and who for a while longer believed that they were helping their people to avoid committing crimes against the administration, sought out fellow Jews in hiding and rounded them up for the concentration camps. Sympathizers when discovered were punished as political criminals and likewise deported to the camps.

The Camps:

Little was known about the concentration camps at first, except that for the expelled Jews remaining in Germany,they were areas of temporary location until Hitler could decide what to do with them. It was thought that perhaps German penal colonies in remote regions of the globe would be established as a possible answer to the problem of relocation. Meanwhile, those interned in the camps were occupied with forced labor and other less attractive activities which ranged from serving as specimens for experimental medicine to being made a sport for their keepers' whims of brutality and perversion. Prisoners of all ages were herded across the landscape to the camps in cattle cars. Upon arrival they were segregated according to the function in which they could best serve the Reich. Family ties meant nothing, nor did other human considerations. Of course, the weakest died first. Conditions for survival were at a minimum. Germany could not afford food and other materials required for use during a time of impending war on such as Jews. Often, those prisoners suffering from malnutrition, disease, or other symptoms of physical declinewere the victims of "mercy killings."

The Final Solution:

By 1939 Hitler's aggressive tactics in international affairs had plunged Germany into the initial phases of World War II. Wartime economy as well as war psychology demanded a "Final Solution" to the "Jewish Question." This, in a word, meant extermination. All Jews in Germany and German-occupied countries were to be annihilated. "Experts" on the "Jewish Question" such as Adolf Eichmann and others were consulted. Removal of the Jews to remote places was now a discarded plan because of the impossibilities of wartime transportation. There was just one answer, and under Hitler's orders all Jews were to be rounded up and sent to certain camps where special equipment was being built for their extermination.

Shooting took too long and would utilize ammunition needed for the war. Starvation was too slow. Inflicting disease was too dangerous to those unscheduled for death. Poisoning was not an unsuitable idea, but how could it be most efficiently accomplished among six million Jews? It was then decided

that enormous gas chambers be constructed to resemble ordinary buildings large enough to contain hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of people. These buildings would contain outlets for the poison gas which would be piped in and controlled from the outside by valves. In a few hours when asphyxiation was complete, the corpses could be removed and a new batch of prisoners who had been promised "showers" before relocating could be locked in for the next gassing. The disposals of the corpses at first presented another problem. It was soon solved. As burying thousands of bodies was impractical, cremating the remains was decided upon. Huge crematoriums were erected near the gas chambers. These decisions made, the "Final Solution" went into effect in 1941.

Occupied Holland And The Jews:

The Jewish population of the Netherlands in 1942 was approximately one hundred and forty thousand. Of these, some thirty-five thousand were "stateless" Jews, a term meaning that they were refugees, mostly from Germany. The Dutch had been openly hostile to the anti-Jewish measures taken by the Nazis since the occupation of Holland in 1940. When, in 1942, the programming of the "Final Solution" went into effect in the Netherlands, it meant the initial deportation of twenty thousand Jews to concentration camps. To this enactment there was violent opposition among the Dutch in the form of a wave of strikes.

The sympathy of the Dutch for the Jews was threatened in two ways. First, that segment of the population involved in the Nazi movement formed a very powerful machine. Ever loyal to the Fuehrer and his Aryan ideals, the Dutch Nazis could be counted upon to unearth Jews from their hiding places, whence seizure and deportation were immediately carried out. Secondly, among the Jews themselves, there existed a cleavage between the native born and the refugees.

The native Jews were led to believe that it was only the foreigners who were to be the victims of Hitler's plans. To save themselves, many Dutch-born Jews were easily enlisted by the Nazis into a Jewish police force, an agency of a larger body known as the Jewish Council. Similar to Caesar's method of "divide and conquer," this pitting of Jew against Jew succeeded in the eventual deportation by July, 1944, of one hundred and thirteen thousand Jews. This figure included a larger percentage of native Dutch Jews whose collaboration with the Nazis proved a catastrophe out of proportion to anything these duped people could possibly have imagined. For, even among the twenty thousand Jews who survived in hiding, only five thousand were Dutch born.

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