Egyptology
{ee-jip-tahl'-uh-jee}

Egyptology is the study of Ancient Egyptian civilization. It is generally extended to include the language and archaeology of the Copts, the Christian descendents of the ancient Egyptians. The initial impetus for developing the discipline was provided by Napoleon I's ill-fated invasion of Egypt in 1798, which opened the country to European collectors and scholars and led to the formation of important collections of Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum, the Louvre, and the museums of Turin and Berlin.

Napoleon was accompanied by a large body of savants whose function was to record Egypt's historical, cultural, and natural heritage. The results of their work were published in 20 massive folio volumes entitled Description de l'Egypte (Description of Egypt). A more important result of the invasion was the chance discovery of the ROSETTA STONE, whose bilingual inscriptions in Greek and the ancient language of Egypt enabled Jean Francois CHAMPOLLION to make (1822) the decisive breakthrough in the decipherment of the HIEROGLYPHIC script.

The two chief branches of Egyptology are the study of inscriptions and written documents and the study of archaeological evidence. During its life of more than 3,000 years, the language underwent substantial changes in grammar, syntax, and vocabulary, as well as in the number and character of the hieroglyphic signs used in writing it. Moreover, from a very early date (before 2650 BC), scribes, when writing in ink, often adopted a cursive hand, known as hieratic, which developed until it bore little resemblance to the hieroglyphic script.

An even more cursive script, called demotic, evolved from hieratic in about the 7th century BC and continued as late as the fifth century AD.

Documents in these three scripts cover a wide variety of subjects, including religion, magic, practical wisdom, belles lettres, history, business, personal and legal matters, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. Egyptologists of many nations have worked on these documents, publishing the texts with translations and commentaries, writing grammars, and compiling dictionaries. Many of the original documents are damaged or incomplete, so that interpretation presents considerable difficulties.

Archaeological investigation is no less varied in scope than linguistic studies and is just as important for understanding the nature and development of the Egyptian civilization. Among its many branches are scientific excavation, the classification and analysis of objects, technology, architecture, art history, and natural history. The number of monuments and the quantity of objects available for study are enormous, chiefly because of the long history and prehistory of the ancient Egyptians, the use from an early date of stone, the preservative effects of Egypt's dry climate, the rapid accumulation of wind-blown sand over edifices, and the burial of so much material of all kinds with the dead.

Pictorial representations on the walls of temples and tombs shed invaluable light on ritual ceremonies, historical events, and human activities. Relatively few traces of habitations or settlements have survived, however, the most notable exceptions being the city of Akhenaten at Tell el-AMARNA and the village, now called Deir el-Medinah, of the artists and craftsmen who constructed the tombs at THEBES.

In spite of all the progress made in the rediscovery of ancient EGYPT, much still remains to be learned, even from further study of what has already been found. No one knows what still lies beneath the sand, but many sites, particularly in the Nile Delta, have not yet been systematically explored, and there is every reason to hope that they will yield new evidence to fill some of the gaps in present-day knowledge.

Egypt is a nation occupying the northeastern corner of Africa, the SINAI Peninsula in adjacent Southwest Asia, and some islands in the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the north, Sudan on the south, the Red Sea and Israel on the east, and Libya on the west. The name Egypt is derived from the Greek word Aegyptus, which was taken from the ancient Egyptian term Hik up tah ("House of the Spirit"). The term was used to designate the city of MEMPHIS, Egypt's earliest capital.

Egypt
Egypt is the most populous nation in the Arab world and (after Nigeria) the second most populous country in Africa. CAIRO, Egypt's capital, is the largest city in both Africa and the Middle East. Over 96% of Egypt's population lives along the narrow, fertile NILE RIVER valley and its delta, which accounts for only 4% of the total land area. Most of the remainder live along the SUEZ CANAL. Overpopulation in relation to the country's resources is Egypt's greatest barrier to economic development, and today the nation is heavily dependent upon foreign aid.

Egyptians' strong identity extends back to the 4th millennium BC when the ancient Egyptian civilization was established. Conquered by the Arabs during the 7th century, Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1517 to 1798 and was held by the British from 1882 to 1922. It then became an independent monarchy. The monarchy was abolished after a military coup in 1952, and in 1954, Col. Gamal Abdel NASSER became president, shaping Egypt into the socialist republic it is today. Egypt was a leading belligerent in four ARAB-ISRAELI WARS, but in 1979 President Anwar al-SADAT signed a peace treaty with the Israelis.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Egypt can be divided into four major physiographic regions: the Nile Valley and Delta, the ARABIAN DESERT, the LIBYAN DESERT, and the SINAI.

The Nile River valley is about 1,530 km (950 mi) long. In the south the valley is rarely more than 3 km (2 mi) wide. North of EDFU (Idfu) the valley averages 8 to 16 km (5 to 10 mi) in width, with steep cliffs on either side. From Cairo to the north, the valley merges with the fertile delta. Southwest of Cairo near the town of AL-FAIYUM, a large depression called the Faiyum Depression, covering about 1,800 sq km (700 sq mi) in area, was left when ancient Lake Moeris evaporated. Today Birket (lake) Qarun, a shallow lake, occupies part of the depression, 45 m (150 ft) below sea level. The depression is extremely fertile and is noted for its orchards and gardens.

The Arabian Desert (known in Egypt as the Eastern Desert) is an extension of the Sahara. It consists of a plateau that slopes upward from the Nile to heights of about 600 m (2,000 ft). On the east it is bordered by a range of jagged mountains reaching 2,187 m (7,175 ft) at Jabal (mount) Shayib al-Banat. There are few oases, and the region is sparsely populated. The southern part of the Eastern Desert, the NUBIAN DESERT, is a rocky plateau extending south into Sudan. The Sinai Peninsula is also part of the Eastern Desert. In the south the Sinai is a highland dominated by Jabal Katerina at 2,642 m (8,668 ft)--the highest mountain in Egypt.

The Libyan Desert (known in Egypt as the Western Desert) is a great arid plain, most of it lying below 300 m (1,000 ft). Great sand-dune formations form an effective barrier along the Egyptian-Libyan border. The southern part of the Western Desert has no oases or settlements. To the north is a series of depressions; the QATTARA DEPRESSION, covering about 18,100 sq km (7,000 sq mi), is 133 m (436 ft) below sea level.

Soils

Most of the farmland of Egypt is limited to the Nile Valley and Delta, where irrigation can make the rich alluvial soils productive. The vast majority of remaining land is too dry for farming and covered with infertile rocky or sandy soils.

Climate

Egypt's climate is generally dry, with two seasons: a hot season from May to October and a cool season from November to April. During the summer, temperatures may reach 42 deg C (107 deg F). Winters are generally warm, with average temperatures between 13 deg and 21 deg C (55 deg and 70 deg F). Wide temperature variations occur in the deserts, ranging from a mean annual maximum of 46 deg C (114 deg F) during the day to a mean annual minimum of 6 deg C (42 deg F) after sunset.

The Mediterranean coast, which receives the most rain in Egypt, has about 200 mm (8 in) or less. In drier areas of southern Egypt several years may elapse without any rain at all. In April and May hot, dry winds and sandstorms called khamsin blow frequently, causing much damage to crops.

Drainage

The Nile, Egypt's only river, has no tributaries of importance in Egypt and draws most of its water from wetter areas to the south of Egypt. The world's longest river, it is more than 6,440 km (4,000 mi) in length and is navigable as far south as ASWAN where the ASWAN HIGH DAM has created a reservoir--Lake NASSER--the world's largest artificial lake. The Nile Delta has numerous distributaries, the largest of which are the Rosetta and Damietta. Before regulation by the Aswan High Dam, the Nile flooded its valley every year. A greater flow of the Nile meant more water for irrigation and bountiful harvests for Egyptian farmers; a small flow could mean famine.

The High Dam stores water to eliminate variation in the amount available for irrigation each year. Because water is now retained throughout the year, however, much soil has become waterlogged and has a high saline content, and many irrigation canals have become clogged.

Egypt's best-known oases, located in the Western Desert, include Siwa, Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, and Kharga. In the coastal area of Sinai, water drainage toward the Mediterranean supplies sufficient moisture for some agriculture.

Vegetation and Animal Life

Egypt's desert climate restricts most vegetation to the Nile Valley and Delta and the oases. The most widespread indigenous tree is the date palm; other trees include the carob, tamarisk, and sycamore. Rushes grow along streams. In the arid regions halfa grass and thorn trees are common.

The lack of forest and grazing areas limits wild-animal life. The few species found include the fox, jackal, boar, hyena, and wild ass. Crocodiles are found in the Upper Nile. Egypt has more than 300 species of birds and 100 species of fish.

PEOPLE

Most Egyptians are descended from the successive ARAB settlements that followed the Muslim conquest in the 7th century, mixed with the indigenous pre-Islamic population. The typical Egyptian, of mixed heritage, is the Fellah, or peasant; the FELLAHIN constitute more than 60% of the population. Egyptian Copts (see COPTIC CHURCH), a Christian minority who constitute about 5% of the population, are the least mixed descendants of the pre-Arab population. The Nubians, who live south of Aswan, have been Arabized in religion and culture, although they still speak the Nubian language. Nomads, who live in the semidesert regions, are composed of both Arab and BERBER elements. Small minorities of Italians and Greeks live in the cities.

Language

Arabic is the official language of Egypt and is spoken by almost all Egyptians. The Coptic language, which is descended from ancient Egyptian, has died out among the people and is now used only in the Coptic liturgy. Italian, Greek, and Armenian are heard in Cairo and ALEXANDRIA. Berber is spoken in some of the western oases. Many of the nearly 100,000 Nubians in the south speak Sudanic languages (see AFROASIATIC LANGUAGES).

Religion

Nearly 93% of Egyptians are Sunni Muslims (see SUNNITES). In addition to Coptic Christians, other religious minorities include Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Armenians, and a very small Jewish community, all concentrated in urban centers. During the 1980s a rise in religious sentiments led to isolated clashes between Muslim and Christian extremists.

Demography

Egypt has a high rate of population growth. By the late 1980s, about 40% of its people were under the age of 15. Population density in the Nile Delta, where nearly 99% of all Egyptians live, is one of the highest in the world: 1,600 persons per sq km (4,143 per sq mi) in 1980.

Cairo is the principal industrial and commercial center. Alexandria, the chief port and second largest city, is an important commercial center. PORT SAID, Tanta, and Giza have long been major urban areas. Other cities such as Aswan and Zagazig have grown gradually with industrial development and have become commercial centers.

Although more than half of the Egyptian population is rural, a shortage of jobs exists in the countryside, and rapid urbanization has taken place over the last several decades. rapidly over the last several decades. Greater Cairo's population doubled between 1970 and 1980.

Education

Because of the rapid population growth over recent decades, governmental efforts to reduce the illiteracy rate are making only slow progress. During the 1940s about 80% of the Egyptian people could not read or write. Despite compulsory elementary education, more than half of the adult population remain illiterate.

Education in Egypt is under government control and is free, including university education. Children between the ages of 6 and 12 are required by law to attend elementary school. Graduates of elementary schools may attend either a general intermediate school in preparation for secondary education or a technical intermediate school. The secondary school system prepares students for higher education.

Egypt has a large number of institutions of higher learning (see MIDDLE EASTERN UNIVERSITIES). Al-Azhar University in Cairo, founded in 970 for Islamic learning, is one of the oldest universities in the world. Ain Shams University (1950) and Cairo University (1908) are Egypt's largest.

Health

Egypt's medical system, which is under governmental control, provides free medical care. Bilharzia, intestinal disease, respiratory diseases, and dysentery are prevalent, however, because of poor sanitation, polluted water, inadequate nutrition, and lack of public health information. Bilharzia, an energy-sapping disease caused by small worms in the Nile's waters, afflicts about half of the population.

Since 1952 significant improvements in public health and medical facilities have resulted in a substantial increase in life expectancy. Because most physicians have tended to concentrate in urban areas, the government now requires recent medical graduates to serve in rural areas for at least two years.

The Arts

Egypt has a long cultural tradition, deeply rooted in the history of the country. Culture in ancient Egypt influenced the Hebrew and Greek civilizations. Following the Arab conquest of Egypt, the arts once again flourished.

During the FATIMID caliphate (969-1169), public buildings and palaces were characterized by elegant architecture (see ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE). The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 introduced influences that began a new cultural era. As a result of Western impact, many Egyptian intellectuals began to reexamine their religious orientation. JAMAL AL-DIN AL-AFGHANI and Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905) are noted for writings that attempt to relate divine revelation to reason in order to resolve the conflict between modern and traditional values.

Egyptian poetry, novels, and plays have deep traditional roots but they are also concerned with the influence of the West. Muhammed Husayn Haykal (1888-1956) was the author of one of the earliest novels in modern Arabic, Zynab (1914). One of the first writers to be recognized outside of the Middle East was TAHA HUSAYN. The novelist and playwright Tawfiq al-HAKIM was a social critic and satirist. Other prominent 20th-century Egyptian writers are Mahmud Taymur; Naguib MAHFOUZ, recipient of the 1988 NOBEL PRIZE for literature; and Yusuf Idris; and the poet Abbas al-Aqqad. (See also ARABIC LITERATURE.)

Since the late 1920s, Egypt has been the principal Arab film-making center. The government actively encourages drama and owns all theaters, for it recognizes the educational value of plays. All plays are subject to review by the government before staging. Traditional music, especially when adapted to Western rhythm, is very popular. The Cairo Symphony is Egypt's outstanding national orchestra.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

Prior to the 1952 revolution the Egyptian economy was based primarily on farming, and there was little industrial activity. After 1952 the economy started to expand gradually through a series of government programs. In 1961 the government promulgated a series of socialist laws that placed the economy under increased control of the state; banking, insurance, mining, power production, and transportation industries were taken over by the government. Economic development was seriously affected by the 1967 war with Israel, and in 1970 the socialist laws were relaxed and replaced by an economic policy more favorable to private enterprise.

Egypt's dependence on Western aid increased after the expulsion of Soviet personnel in 1972, and after Arab nations cut off aid in 1979 following conclusion of an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Despite the recent economic expansion and progress, Egypt still faces extensive economic problems characteristic of developing countries. The investment funds are limited; the national resources are few; the cultivable land is extremely limited. The economy was further strained in the 1980s when a rise in Middle East tensions and a world oil glut reduced the chief sources of foreign exchange: tourism, remittances from overseas workers, Suez Canal revenues, and petroleum exports. In 1990 further strains were caused by the expulsion of thousands of Egyptian workers from Iraqi-occupied Kuwait.

Manufacturing and Industry

The first efforts toward industrialization were made early in the 19th century under the rule of Muhammad Ali, who imported modern machinery and attempted to establish an industrial sector. By the end of World War II a small industrial base had developed, with textiles the major product. The textile industry remains the principal manufacturing activity. Other important products include cement, iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers, rubber products, refined sugar, tobacco, canned foods, cottonseed oil, small metal products, shoes, and furniture.

Mining and Energy

Mining has increased in importance since the mid-1970s. Crude petroleum is the leading product, but salt, phosphate, iron ore, and manganese are also extracted.

The availability of sufficient power remains a basic problem. Egypt is self-sufficient in petroleum and has some coal and natural gas deposits. Much of its electric power is provided by the Aswan High Dam.

Agriculture

Agriculture contributes about one-third of the gross domestic product, and the percentage of the labor force it employs is steadily declining. Farming is labor intensive, using traditional methods. Per-hectare yields are among the highest in the world, although a rise in the water table and soil salinity caused by the Aswan High Dam have decreased yields in the Nile Delta. Land-reform laws limit individual holdings to about 40 ha (100 acres), but there are widespread evasions of the law. The pressure on the scarce arable land has steadily increased due to population growth, and costly government land-reclamation and irrigation projects have been offset by the loss of cultivable land to urban sprawl.

Egypt, once self-sufficient in food, today imports nearly one-half of its foodstuffs. Attempts to reduce costly government subsidies on foods and other basic commodities have provoked violent urban unrest. Egypt is one of the largest cotton exporters in the world. Corn, sugarcane, wheat, rice, barley, millet, onions, and potatoes are grown, as are vegetables, mangoes, citrus fruits, figs, dates, and grapes.

Fishing

Egypt has a flourishing fishing industry. The Aswan High Dam adversely affected fishing along the Mediterranean coast; today about 70% of the total catch is obtained from inland waters, including fisheries along Lake Nasser.

Transportation and Trade

The Nile River and the Suez Canal are both important transportation arteries. The Suez Canal was widened after it reopened in 1975, and the first tunnel under the canal was completed in 1980. Egypt's railroad system (begun in 1851) is government controlled. The chief ports are at Alexandria (the leading terminal of foreign trade), Port Said, and Suez. Egyptair, the government-owned airline, has domestic and international flights.

Petroleum is Egypt's leading export in terms of value, followed by cotton and cotton products. Foodstuffs, machinery, and transportation equipment are the major imports. Earnings from tourism, overseas workers, and Suez Canal revenues declined dramatically during the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis, but Egypt's creditors later forgave about half of its foreign debt in return for its support of the allied coalition.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution, adopted in 1971, defines Egypt as "an Arab Republic with a democratic, socialist system." It provides for a president, cabinet, legislature, and court system. Executive power is vested in the president, who is nominated by at least two-thirds of the legislature and then elected for a 6-year term by popular referendum. The president may appoint vice-presidents and the cabinet and can dismiss them and dissolve the legislature at any time.

The unicameral National Assembly functions primarily as a policy-approving body. Although the legal system is generally based on Islamic law, efforts by fundamentalists to impose a strict Islamic code have been unsuccessful. The Supreme Constitutional Court determines the constitutionality of Egyptian laws. For administrative purposes, Egypt is divided into 26 governorates. Each is headed by a governor appointed by the president.

With the abolition of the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's old political parties, including the once-powerful WAFD, were dissolved. In 1962, President Nasser established the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) as Egypt's only legal political party. In 1976, President Sadat allowed the creation of three political groups within the ASU; the group backing Sadat became the new National Democratic party (NDP) in 1977. By the 1987 elections one party dominated the legislature. The NPD gained 70% of the vote, the Socialist Labor party (including the Muslim Brotherhood) 15%, and the reconstituted New Wafd party 11%.

HISTORY

For the history of Egypt prior to the 7th century AD, see EGYPT, ANCIENT.

Arab Conquest

Between AD 639 and 642 the Arabs took control over Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and introduced both the Arabic language and Islam. The Arab CALIPHATE had its capital at Damascus under the Umayyads and at Baghdad under the Abbasids. In 969, however, the FATIMIDS, a Shiite dynasty, conquered Egypt and founded Cairo as its capital. Fatimid rule ended in 1171 when SALADIN conquered Egypt and united it with Syria.

He founded the AYYUBID dynasty (1171-1250) and restored Egypt to Sunni Islam. The Ayyubids were weakened by the Fifth Crusade (1218-21) and the Sixth Crusade (1249). The dynasty was brought to an end when the MAMELUKES, originally brought to Egypt by the Ayyubids as war captives, revolted against their masters and seized power in 1250. Under their rule Egypt became an important cultural, military, and economic center.

In 1517, Cairo was conquered by the Ottoman sultan SELIM I, who reduced the role of Egypt to that of an exploited province of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE.

European Influence

Ottoman rule of Egypt remained uninterrupted until the end of the 18th century. In 1798 a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte (NAPOLEON I) arrived in Egypt. Although the French were expelled in 1801, their short occupation had a great impact on Egypt's future because it brought the country into close contact with the West.

During a power struggle that followed the expulsion of the French, MUHAMMAD ALI PASHA, an Albanian officer in the Ottoman forces, established himself in a position of power and was recognized (1805) as viceroy of Egypt by the Ottoman sultan. In 1811 he rid Egypt of the Mamelukes. He undertook (1811-18) successful military campaigns in Arabia and conquered (1820-22) the Northern Sudan.

In 1824 he sent an Egyptian force, led by his son Ibrahim, to help the Ottoman sultan suppress the Greek independence revolt, but the Egyptian and Turkish fleets were destroyed at the Battle of NAVARINO. When the sultan rejected Muhammad Ali's demand for Syria in recompense, Ibrahim conquered (1831) Syria and ruled it for seven years. War with the Ottomans broke out, and in 1841, Muhammad Ali defeated the Ottoman sultan and became hereditary ruler of Egypt. During his rule, Muhammad Ali embarked upon programs of reform and modernization that laid the foundations of modern Egypt.

The Modern Era

Under Muhammad Ali's hereditary successors, Egypt's prosperity declined, despite the construction of the SUEZ CANAL (opened 1869) with the help of a French firm. To offset Egypt's declining economy, Khedive ISMAIL PASHA borrowed increasingly large sums of money from Europeans. He sold (1875) most of Egypt's shares in the Suez Canal to Great Britain and in 1876 was forced to accept the establishment of a joint Anglo-French debt commission.

In 1879, Ismail was deposed in favor of his son TAWFIQ PASHA. A nationalist revolt in 1881-82 was suppressed by the British, who then became the controlling power in Egypt. From 1883 to 1907 the effective ruler of the country was the British administrator Lord Cromer (see CROMER, EVELYN BARING, 1ST EARL OF). When World War I began in 1914, Britain made Egypt a protectorate and used it as a base for Allied operations against the Ottoman Empire.

In 1922 the protectorate was ended, and Egypt became a monarchy with FUAD I as king. In 1937 he was succeeded by King FAROUK, and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except in the Suez Canal Zone.

During World War II, Egypt helped Britain to defeat German forces at El ALAMEIN. After the war, national feelings grew stronger, and discontent increased after Arab armies were defeated in the 1948 war with Israel. In 1952 the Egyptian army seized power, and King Farouk abdicated. The monarchy was abolished in 1953, and Egypt became a republic with Gen. Muhammad Naguib as the first president. In 1954, Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser forced Naguib out of office and became president.

Following the withdrawal of a Western offer to finance the Aswan High Dam, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956. In retaliation, Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt. The troops were forced to withdraw under pressure from the United States, the USSR, and the United Nations (see SUEZ CRISIS). Nasser's successful resistance to the triple aggression increased his popularity in the Arab World and led to Egypt's forming a short-lived union (1958-61) with Syria, known as the UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC.

In 1967 increased tension between Israel and the Arab states and the closure of the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping brought about war with Israel. During the so-called Six-Day War the Israeli air force attacked and destroyed the Egyptian air force on the ground, and the Egyptian army was defeated in the Sinai, which came under Israeli occupation.

Nasser died in September 1970 and was succeeded by his vice-president, Anwar al SADAT. In July 1972, Sadat ordered the 20,000 Soviet military advisors and experts in Egypt to leave because he believed that the Soviets were not willing to supply Egypt with sophisticated weapons needed to liberate territory lost to Israel. The uneasy state of neither war nor peace led to violent clashes between police and students in 1972 and 1973.

The unrest continued until Sadat made assurances that military action against Israel was intended. In a surprise attack on Oct. 6, 1973, Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal into the Sinai, and Syrian forces entered the Golan Heights. Egyptian forces regained a strip of the Sinai during the three-week war. The war, along with the reopening of the Suez Canal in June 1975, enhanced Sadat's reputation.

The Peace Initiative

In 1974 the United States and Egypt resumed diplomatic relations, previously severed by Egypt in 1967. By September 1975, through U. S. mediating efforts, Egypt and Israel had reached several agreements on the disengagement of their forces. In March 1976, Sadat abrogated a friendship treaty with the USSR signed in 1971.

Sadat took a dramatic and significant step toward peace with Israel by visiting Jerusalem in November 1977. President Jimmy CARTER sponsored a peace summit in September 1978 between Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem BEGIN. Egypt and Israel signed preliminary documents for a peace treaty. The actual treaty, signed on Mar. 26, 1979, in Washington, D.C., called for the gradual withdrawal of Israeli troops from the Sinai over a period of 3 years. The withdrawal proceeded smoothly, and in January 1980, Egypt and Israel established diplomatic relations. Little progress was made, however, in the difficult negotiations on Palestinian autonomy, and the rest of the Arab world rejected the rapprochement with Israel.

From 1974, Sadat had followed a policy entirely different from that of Nasser, who advocated war with Israel, Arab socialism, and Arab unity. Sadat promoted peace with Israel, economic liberalism, and Egyptian nationalism. Although Sadat increased political freedoms, he also periodically cracked down on dissidents. In 1981 he was killed by Muslim fundamentalists.

His successor, Hosni MUBARAK, honored the peace treaty with Israel but criticized the lack of progress on the Palestinian issue. Israel withdrew from the Sinai by 1982 except for Taba, a resort returned to Egypt in 1989. Mubarak improved Egypt's ties with other Arab nations, gaining readmission to the Islamic Conference Organization in 1984 and to the Arab League in 1989; in 1990 the League voted to return its headquarters to Cairo. Mubarak's popularity at home declined as the economy deteriorated and Muslim fundamentalism increased, but he won a second term as president in 1987, and his party remained in firm control of the legislature.

Mubarak's activist foreign policy improved his domestic standing and won him the gratitude of the United States. Egypt had aided Iraq during the IRAN-IRAQ WAR (1980-88). After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, however, Mubarak convened the Arab summit that voted to deploy Arab soldiers to supplement U.S. forces invited to Saudi Arabia, arguing that no Arab state should attack and occupy another.

Egyptian troops (the last of which returned home in August 1991) formed the third-largest allied contingent in the PERSIAN GULF WAR in 1991. The Egyptian government continued to support the U.S. effort to persuade Israel to implement the plan for autonomy for the Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip. In the process, Egypt resumed its historical role as the leader of Middle Eastern diplomacy. Mubarak supported the regional peace process and the 1993 accord between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization. At home, he sought accommodation with the MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD, while cracking down on more radical armed Islamic groups.

Mubarak won a third term in October 1993 amid increasing demands for reform. Relations with Sudan worsened in late June 1995 after Mubarak implicated the Sudanese government in an aborted assassination against him. At the same time, Egyptian troops expelled Sudanese guards from a long-disputed border area.