Coffin (Sarcophagus)
{sahr-kahf'-uh-guhs}
A sarcophagus is an ancient coffin (chest and lid) made of wood, terra-cotta, marble, alabaster, or metal, and generally ornamented with painting, sculpture, or both. From the Hellenistic through the Early Christian period (4th century BC-5th century AD), sarcophagi were usually adorned with vividly colored, elaborately carved reliefs, or friezes, of either continuous scenes or rows of single figures in architectural settings.
Sarcophagi are an invaluable record of sculptural style, technique, and subject matter, especially with regard to funerary sculpture. The term sarcophagus derives from two Greek words meaning "flesh-eating." According to the Roman historian Pliny the Elder, this stemmed from the use, during prehistoric ages as well as in ancient Egypt and Greece, of coffins lined with a type of stone with caustic properties that was believed to consume a corpse in 40 days.
The oldest known sarcophagus is Egyptian and dates from the 1st dynasty (c.3000 BC). One of the best known Egyptian examples is the red-granite sarcophagus of Tutankhamen (c.1350 BC; Cairo Museum).
The "Greek type" of stone sarcophagus was decorated on all four sides. Found in eastern Hellenistic kingdoms, it dates from the mid-4th century BC and remained in use during Roman times. A fine example is the brightly painted Alexander Sarcophagus (late 4th century BC; Istanbul Museum).
In ancient Italy Etruscan sarcophagi were generally modeled in terra-cotta or carved in stone and date from the 6th to the 1st century BC. These were the first to portray on their lids the recumbent effigy of the deceased individual or, as on the di Vulci Sarcophagus (c.400-350 BC; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), the effigies of a deceased couple.
The earliest Roman sarcophagus is that of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (3d century BC; the Vatican, Rome). It is unusual in date because Romans preferred cremation to burial until AD c.100. The "Roman type" of sarcophagus was carved in high relief, often with representations of garlands, battles, and mythological subjects. A good example is the Niobid Sarcophagus (AD c.130; Lateran, Rome).
On Christian sarcophagi after AD 400, such as that of Saint Barbara in Ravenna (AD c.500), biblical themes replaced mythological and historical subjects. The continuous narrative of the Roman sarcophagi was supplanted by crowded, super-imposed scenes, or niches, separated by small columns, and enclosing figures.
The Early Christian column sarcophagus, derived from Greek versions exported to Rome from Asia Minor (AD 100-200), influenced medieval and Gothic funerary sculpture, for example Tino da Camaino's monument for Holy Roman Emperor HENRY VII (c.1310; Campo Santo, Pisa). Because of their classical grandeur and dignity, ornate sarcophagi continued to be made during the Renaissance and Baroque periods and were sometimes incorporated in monumental tombs, for example, Andrea del Verrocchio's Medici Tomb (c.1472; San Lorenzo, Florence).
COFFIN FRAGMENTS
The Egyptians began to use containers for the body in burials before the 1st dynasty. Coffins were mostly box-like during the Old Kingdom and the characteristic Egyptian anthropoid (human shaped) type appeared first in the Middle Kingdom. The development of coffins is very complex, and scholarly works on most types remain to be published. Different types are very characteristic of different periods, and are very important for dating other finds.
A fragment of the outer coffin of Horempe Part of a corner post of the outer coffin of Horempe A fragment of a coffin of Wedjahor A fragment of the second coffin of Wedjahor
Excavations inside TT99 brought to light over 14,000 fragments of coffins of many different types. So far they all appear to be characteristic of the 25th dynasty. They remain to be studied fully, but we have parts of outer wooden box coffins (as that of Horempe shown above), plain anthropoid coffins which went inside them (fragment of Wedjahor's above), and decorated wooden or cartonnage anthropoid coffins which went inside the plain wooden coffin. The following wooden jackal was reassembled from several fragments and would have sat on top of one of the box coffins:
COLONNADE
Temple of Hatshepsut Deir el Bahari, Thebes Dynasty XVIII, c. 1480 B.C.
This colonnade is on the south
side of the second terrace. Like all the colonnades throughout the temple
complex, it is decorated with reliefs.
Conservation
Conservation of the tomb and the objects in it has become an important part of the project. It started originally with the need to clean some of the paintings prior to documentation. However, surveys have shown the need for a more systematic approach to both consolidation and cleaning; also, a number of the objects found have been in need of some conservation.
The mission's conservators are Julie Dawson (Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge) and Helen Howard (Courtauld Institute, London).
The following texts are taken from a panel about the expedition's work exhibited at an EEC sponsored conservation conference in Cairo in May 1996.
Conservation of the Wall Paintings
Introduction
The remains of the splendid 18th dynasty wall paintings in the tomb of Senneferi are extensive, but, as is shown clearly here, their condition varies enormously from area to area. A sharp distinction can be drawn, for example, between the appearance of the shrine room, where the overall condition of the extant painting is generally good, and the transverse hall, where the images are almost completely illegible.
In all areas there is considerable physical damage, and the majority of both paint and plaster layers have been lost below shoulder height. This can be readily explained by the wear and tear of centuries of habitation. The use of the transverse hall for cooking also accounts for the buildup of soot and other accretions which now conceal much of the original design. Fortunately there does not appear to be a problem with active soluble salts, but in both the shrine room and transverse hall, a considerable amount of the painted surface is also obscured by insect nests which cause substantial damage to the underlying pigment and plaster.
The cavalier removal of some of these mud-built nests&emdash;perhaps by early epigraphers&emdash;has resulted in large unsightly voids in the painting where the nests were pulled off together with the paint and plaster substrate, and any remaining mud smeared over the surface. Of greater concern, however, are areas where the paintings have become detached from the rock-cut substrate and are in urgent need of stabilisation.
With such diversity of condition and appearance, it has been essential to establish and prioritise the aims of the present conservation treatment within the financial and temporal constraints of the overall programme.
Conservation of the wall paintings: aims and objectives
To survey and document the condition of all accessible zones of painting and establish a list prioritising those areas where the condition compromises the safety of the painting To stabilise the paint by arresting ongoing deterioration To establish preventative measures to arrest future deterioration To undertake light surface cleaning where necessary to facilitate epigraphy and documentation
Techniques and materials employed for emergency conservation in 1994 and 1995 seasons
Fixing of the plaster substrate to rock-cut support was undertaken by injecting Plextol B500:water (75:25) at the zone of detachment using a hypodermic needle and syringe. Just before the injection of the consolidant, the paint surface itself was pre-wetted with white spirit to prevent evaporation at the surface, thus avoiding unwanted staining of the paint surface. The zone of detached painting was gently held in position with an intervention layer of Japanese tissue until the adhesive took effect.
To re-lay paint flakes, the surface was prepared by the gentle removal of dust and cobwebs with a fine brush, and the application of white spirit to the surface which prevented any staining of the surface by the consolidant. Plextol B500 at 30% concentration was then introduced behind the flake which was gently pressed back into place with a spatula. Following the fixing of any powdering and flaking, light surface cleaning was effected with a Wishab (dry vulcanised latex) sponge. The result of this is impressive.
Removal of the insect nests was accomplished by slowly softening the mud structure with tiny poultices made from Arbocel BC 200 (highly pure cellulose pulp) combined with water over an intervention layer of Japanese tissue. The advantage of a poultice is that is prevents the water from penetrating too far into the mud of the nest. In this way, only a few millimetres of the mud are softened and removed at any one time, without causing any staining of, or damage to, the underlying paint layer.
Technique
From observation made during a close examination of the wall paintings in situ, it appears that the basic structural aspects of the painting compare closely with other 18th dynasty wall paintings in that:
Very deep recesses in the rock-cut surfaces of the interior of the tomb were filled with a mud/straw render A single layer of coarse white plaster&emdash;which appears to consist of a mixture of calcium sulphate, calcium carbonate, and sand&emdash;was then applied to level the wall A final layer of white plaster was employed to provide a compact and reflective white surface for painting To set out the basic geometric framework of the design, lines were 'snapped' onto the surface using a red iron oxide pigment. These snapped lines can be clearly seen in the paintings. An underdrawing, also in red iron oxide, was then employed to place the main pictorial elements within the visual field The white background of the paintings was then painted in a white pigment up to the outlines of features in the design, covering any errors made in the preparatory drawing
However, of particular interest is the thick impasto with which the paint has been applied in some areas, such as for the wig of the large figure on wall 6 of the transverse hall where tiny triangles of Egyptian blue, 4-5 mm thick, were employed to represent the complex hairstyle. it is also clear than an original coating--which appears to be wax--survives on distinct zones of colour.
Conservation of the excavated objects
Aims and objectives
To ensure that all objects are stable and correctly packed for long-term preservation To record the condition of and conserve objects which need cleaning and stabilisation
Treatment of excavated objects
A wide variety of artifacts has been excavated from the shafts. Given the sheer quantity of objects, the time constraints, and the limitations of the tomb as a conservation studio, the treatments applied are necessarily very simple and focus on preventive care. Most of the objects will remain in storage in the tomb. Stability and fragility is assessed. For vulnerable pieces supportive packing is created using materials which are known to have good aging properties.
This may be as simple as a storage tray for tiny papyrus fragments, custom-made from layers of polyethylene foam. Some objects however require more extensive preparation for study and storage.
For example, pieces of linen inscribed with the titulary of Shabaka and the titles of Wedjahor were found in reasonably good condition, retaining considerable flexibility in the fibres. However, all had suffered from varying degrees of physical and ancient insect damage and were very badly crumpled. They could not be examined or stored safely in this state.
After removal of loose surface dirt each piece was placed in a humidity chamber and the humidity raised in stages in order to relax the fibres. Most of the fragments are too large to be stored flat so each piece was rolled between sheets of acid-free tissue over a wide roller made from stiff polyester sheet and placed inside a polyethylene sleeve for protection.
Apart from the obvious physical damage, the sandstone statue of Amenhotep is in sound condition. Most of the surviving pigment and the resin varnish which had originally covered it are adhering strongly to the stone.
The surface was covered in scattered efflorescences of insoluble salts and a thick layer of dirt. The statue was brushed to remove loose dirt, then cleaned using very small quantities of filtered water (on varnished areas) and ethanol (on unvarnished painted areas) applied from cotton wool swabs. Some of the areas of insoluble salts were thinned mechanically with a scalpel. Small flakes of detached paint and white ground were reattached using 5% Paraloid B72 (an acrylic copolymer resin) in acetone as the adhesive.
Two more pieces of the head were
found in another burial shaft in 1994. For the purposes of photography
the fragments rest quite securely unaided on the body, but actual repair
of the statue has been deferred until all the shafts have been dug in case
further pieces of the head are excavated.
Copt
Copt, member of the native Christian minority (5%–10%) of Egypt. Most Copts
belong to the Coptic Church, an autonomous sect that adheres to MONOPHYSITISM.
The Coptic language, now extinct, was the Egyptian language spoken in early
Christian times.
Coptic art
Coptic art, Christian art in the upper Nile Valley of EGYPT. Reaching its
mature phase in the late 5th and 6th cent., Coptic art was influenced by
Islamic art after the Arab conquest of Egypt between 640 and 642. It shows
a high degree of stylization verging on abstraction. The themes represent
both Roman and Christian sources with flattened-out forms and decorative
motifs. Remains of wall paintings reveal Old and New Testament scenes and
images of the Mother and Child. Representative examples of Coptic art are
found in sculpture, ivory, textiles, and ILLUMINATION.
Cosmetics
Cosmetics, preparations applied to enhance the beauty of skin, lips, eyes,
hair, and nails. Body paint has been used for ornamental and religious
purposes since prehistoric times. Ancient Egyptian tombs have yielded cosmetic
jars (kohl pots) and applicators. Thought to have originated in Asia, cosmetics
were used in ancient Greece; in imperial Rome, ladies required the services
of slaves adept in applying them.
Medieval Europe also used oils
and PERFUMES brought from the East by returning Crusaders. In the Renaissance
white-lead powder and vermilion were used extravagantly. From the 17th
cent. cosmetic recipes abounded, often using dangerous compounds, and professional
cosmetologists began to appear. After the French Revolution cosmetics virtually
disappeared. Since 1900, however, particularly with the growth of the advertising
industry, their manufacture and use have grown to huge proportions.
Cotton
Cotton, name for a shrubby plant (genus Gossypium ) of the MALLOW family,
for the fibers surrounding the seeds, and for the cloth woven from the
spun fibers. Each of the seeds, which are contained in capsules, or bolls,
is surrounded by white or cream-colored downy fibers that flatten and twist
naturally as they dry. Cotton is tropical in origin but is now cultivated
worldwide. It has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric times.
Most commercial cotton in the U.S. is from G. hirsutum, but some is obtained from sea-island and American-Egyptian G. barbadense . The chief cultivated species in Asia are G. arboreum and G. herbaceum. Cotton is planted annually by seed. Diseases and insect pests are numerous, e.g., the boll weevil, responsible for enormous losses, particularly of the highly susceptible, silky-fibered sea-island cotton, which was the leading type of cotton before the advent of this pest.
Cotton is separated from its seeds by a COTTON GIN. Manufacture of cotton into cloth, TEXTILES, and yard goods involves carding, combing, and SPINNING. Cotton is a source of CELLULOSE products, fertilizer, fuel, plastic reinforcing, automobile tire cord, pressed paper, cardboard, and cottonseed oil (used, e.g., in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, candles, detergents, paints, oilcloth, and artificial leather), which is pressed from the seeds.
Used in Egypt , China, and India
in ancient times, cotton has long played a significant role in world industry.
Britain's need for imported cotton dictated much of its sea-domination
policy as an imperial nation, and in the U.S., cotton was a principal economic
cause of the CIVIL WAR .
Cross
Cross, widely used symbol found in such diverse cultures as those of ancient
India, Egypt, and the Native Americans. Its most widespread use is among
Christians, to whom it recalls the crucifixion of JESUS and humanity's
redemption thereby. The oldest Christian remains contain drawings of crosses.
Their use was attacked by Byzantine ICONOCLASM, but was vindicated at the
Second Council of NICAEA (787).
There are many types of crosses.
The Latin cross, the commonest, has its upright longer than its transom.
With two transoms it is called a patriarchal or archiepiscopal cross; with
three, it is a papal cross. The Greek cross has equal arms. A crucifix
is a cross with the figure of Jesus upon it.
Crown
Crown, circular head ornament worn by sovereigns. (The coronet is worn
by nobles.) In ancient Greece and Rome crowns were merely wreaths, sometimes
made of leaves, awarded in athletic or poetic contests, or in recognition
of public service. The use of the crown as a symbol of royal rank is of
ancient tradition in Egypt and E Asia. The medieval and modern crown, an
elaboration of the DIADEM, is usually made of metal, often gold, inlaid
with gems.
Famous historic crowns include
the Lombard iron crown (Monza, Italy), the crown of Charlemagne (Vienna,
Austria), and the crown of St. Stephen of Hungary. The triple crown of
the pope, known as a tiara, dates from the 14th cent.
Cryptography
Cryptography, science of translating messages into ciphers or codes. The
science of breaking codes and ciphers without the key is called cryptanalysis.
Cryptology is the science embracing both cryptography and cryptanalysis.
The beginnings of cryptography can be traced to the HIEROGLYPHICS of early
Egyptian civilization (c.1900 B.C.). Ciphering has always been considered
vital for diplomatic and military secrecy.
The widespread use of computers and data transmission in commerce and finance is making cryptography very important in these fields as well. Recent successes in applying certain aspects of computer science to cryptography seem to be leading to more versatile and more secure systems in which encryption is implemented with sophisticated digital electronics. Industry and the U.S. government, however, have argued over who will have ultimate control over data encryption and, as a result, over government access to encrypted private transmissions.