Psamtik I
{sahm'-tik}
Psamtik I, d. 610 BC, king of Egypt (664-610 BC) and founder of the 26th dynasty, reunited Egypt after the longest period of decline in pharaonic history. Between 1069 and 664 BC, Egypt disintegrated into 11 petty kingdoms unable to resist conquest by the Cushites (c.730) and the Assyrians (671). In 664 the Assyrians made Psamtik vassal ruler of Sais, a Delta kingdom. Later, with Assyria distracted elsewhere, Psamtik recruited Greek mercenaries and seized control of northern Egypt. In southern Egypt he used diplomacy to secure the loyalty of local rulers, then gradually replaced them with royal officials. A cultural and economic revival had begun by his death.
PTAH-SOKAR-OSIRIS FIGURES
The Ptah-Sokar-Osiris figure appears at the end of the New Kingdom,
and is a very common feature of burials through to the roman period. A
wooden mummiform figure stands on a wooden base, usually with a plumed
crown and a horizontal pair of idealised ram's horns. On the wooden base
a small wooden falcon usually sits looking at the figure. Much to
our surprise, we found an almost complete figure (uninscribed), as well
as a number of fragments of other figures. Assuming the usual one figure
per burial, it may help to quantify the number of original interments.
Ptolemy
Ptolemy , rulers of the Macedonian dynasty of EGYPT (323 B.C. –30 B.C.).
Ptolemy I, d. 284 B.C., a leading general of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, became
one of the DIADOCHI. After Alexander's death he received Egypt, declared
himself king (305 B.C.), and laid the basis for Ptolemaic administration.
He sought to make ALEXANDRIA the cultural center of the Greek world, especially
by founding its library. His son, Ptolemy II, c.308–246 B.C. (r.285–246),
continued his father's work, completing the Pharos (see SEVEN WONDERS OF
THE WORLD).
He encouraged the translation of the PENTATEUCH into the Greek Septuagint and had a canal built from the Nile to the Red Sea. Ptolemy ended the war with Syria and increased his prestige by siding with Rome in the first PUNIC WAR. His son, Ptolemy III, d. 221 B.C. (r.246–221), renewed war with Syria. During his reign Egyptian fleets controlled most of the coast of Asia Minor, and the kingdom was enlarged. Ptolemy V, d. 180 B.C. (r.205–180), came to the throne as a small boy. Civil war characterized his reign; Syrian and Macedonian invasions cost Egypt all of Palestine and much of Asia Minor.
Ptolemy VI, d. 145 B.C. (r.180–145), became king as an infant; the Syrians forced him to share the throne with his brother (later Ptolemy VII). Trouble between the brothers brought about intervention by Rome. Ptolemy VI was killed while fighting over the Syrian throne. Ptolemy VII, d. 116 B.C. (r.145–116), put his brother's young son to death and succeeded to the throne. He survived a revolt (130–127) by his brother's widow, Cleopatra, and ruled peacefully though despotically.
He drove the scholars from Alexandria, causing the spread of Alexandrian culture. Ptolemy XI, d. 51 B.C. (r.80–58, 55–51), was unseated by the Alexandrians because of his misrule but was restored with the aid of POMPEY. He made the Roman senate executor of his will and named Pompey guardian of his son, Ptolemy XII. Ptolemy XII, 61?–47 B.C. (r.51–47), was from the start overshadowed by his sister, CLEOPATRA, who became his wife and ruled with him.
She revolted (48) against the power of his advisers. At this juncture
the defeated Pompey arrived in Egypt and was killed by Ptolemy's adviser
Pothinus. Julius CAESAR followed immediately, fell under Cleopatra's influence,
and forced Ptolemy to share the throne again.
Ptolemy I
Ptolemy I, c.367-283 BC, created the political and military foundations
of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt (323-30 BC). When Alexander the Great
died in 323 BC, Ptolemy, one of Alexander's leading Macedonian generals,
became satrap (governor) of Egypt. In 304 he declared himself king.
Ptolemy's foreign policy was shrewdly designed to guarantee Egypt's security and trading advantages. He held Cyrenaica for most of his reign. His domination of Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Palestine was more intermittent, but all three were in his control by the end of the reign.
Ptolemy acquired great wealth through trading networks linking India, East Africa, and the Mediterranean. In Egypt he was, in various ways, owner of all but temple land. Taxes, dues, and monopolies further increased the enormous royal treasury. Ptolemy depended on Greeks and Macedonians in government and the army, settling his veterans on farms throughout Egypt. Egyptians were resentful despite the prevailing prosperity, and Ptolemy sought to unify them through religion, without complete success. Ptolemy supported traditional Egyptian religion while both Greeks and Egyptians worshipped a Greco-Egyptian god, SERAPIS, and the king himself. Making ALEXANDRIA his capital, he founded the great library and museum there. Ptolemy abdicated for his son Ptolemy II in 284.
Ptolemy II
{fil-uh-del'-fuhs}
Ptolemy II, 308-246 BC, king of Egypt from 284 BC until his death, maintained, like his father, Ptolemy I, an extensive empire. Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Palestine were Egypt's possessions for most of his reign, but control of Cyrenaica was partial and intermittent. Ptolemy developed contacts with Rome and extended his influence into Nubia and the Arabian peninsula. Ptolemy enhanced the efficiency of state exploitation of Egyptian agricultural labor. He also won renown as a great patron of the arts and sciences. His son, Ptolemy III, succeeded him.
Ptolemy III
{yoo-ur'-jit-eez}
Ptolemy III, c.280-221 BC, succeeded his father, Ptolemy II, as king of Egypt in 246 BC. By his marriage he reunited Egypt and Cyrenaica, and his wars against the Seleucid kings of Syria extended Egyptian territories in the Near East, although some of these conquests were later lost. Ptolemy, whose reign was prosperous, began building the great temple at Edfu and reformed the Egyptian calendar, dating it from the start of the dynasty. He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy IV.
Ptolemy IV
{fil-ahp'-uh-tur}
Ptolemy IV, c.244-205 BC, was king of Egypt (221-205 BC), succeeding his father, Ptolemy III. He lost many of Egypt's Syrian possessions and faced revolts at home. Weak and easily influenced, Ptolemy had his mother and relatives killed at the urging of advisors.
Ptolemy V
{ee-pif'-uh-neez}
Ptolemy V, c.210-180 BC, ruled as king of Egypt from 205 until his death. Only a child when he succeeded his father, Ptolemy IV, he was an ineffectual ruler, and during his reign Egypt lost most of its foreign possessions to the Seleucid king ANTIOCHUS III. The domestic revolts of his father's reign continued. Ptolemy's concessions to the rebels and his suppression of them were inscribed on the ROSETTA STONE.
Ptolemy VI
{fil-uh-mee'-tur}
Ptolemy VI, d. 145 BC, was king of Egypt from 180 to 145 BC. His reign was marked by the problems of dynastic rivalry that would eventually destroy the Ptolemaic dynasty. Succeeding to the throne as a child, Ptolemy was well served by his mother as regent until her death in 176. From 170, Ptolemy uneasily shared the throne with a brother, Ptolemy VIII Euergetes, until Euergetes displaced him in 164. With Roman help, Ptolemy VI regained Egypt and Cyprus, although Euergetes retained Cyrenaica. When Ptolemy VI died from battle wounds in Syria, he left a weakened monarchy to his young son, Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator.
Ptolemy VIII
{yoo-ur'-jit-eez}
Ptolemy VIII, c.182-116 BC, presided over the accelerating decay of Ptolemaic Egypt. An unsavory intriguer, Ptolemy was coruler with his brother Ptolemy VI from 170 to 164 and king of Cyrenaica from 163 to 145. He assassinated (145) his nephew, Ptolemy VII, and was sole king of Egypt from 145 to 116. Ptolemy and one of his two wives fought (131-124) a long civil war that disrupted internal stability until 118; but he was able to retain control of Cyprus and Cyrenaica. He also intervened in Syria. His mischievous will, in which he divided Egypt's foreign territories, created conflict among his heirs.
Ptolemy XIII
Ptolemy XIII, 63-47 BC, ruled Egypt with his sister CLEOPATRA from the
death of their father, Ptolemy XII, in 51 until his own death. Hoping to
retain his father's Roman allies, Ptolemy supplied aid to the Roman general
Pompey the Great. Increasingly suspicious of his sister, he expelled (48)
her from Egypt. Cleopatra raised an army, however, and attacked the northeastern
Egyptian city of Pelusium. Pompey sought refuge there after he was defeated
by Julius CAESAR in Greece, but he was murdered. After Caesar arrived at
Alexandria with his army, Ptolemy and Cleopatra were briefly reconciled.
Cleopatra allied with Caesar, becoming his mistress, but the armies of
Ptolemy and Caesar took up arms and the king was killed. His younger brother,
Ptolemy XIV (c.59-44), subsequently became coruler with Cleopatra.
PYRAMIDS AT GIZA
Dynasty IV, 2680-2565 B.C.
The three great pyramids at Giza. The largest, the pyramid of King
Cheops, is in the rear. To build it required over two million large limestone
blocks. The pyramid of King Chephren is in the center and the pyramid of
King Mycerinus is in front. The three small pyramids are of Mycerinus's
queens. These monumental pyramids are precisely oriented to the four cardinal
points. Cheops' pyramid is a square, 756 feet on each side. Its height
is over 481 feet and the slope of the sides is 552'.
In architecture the term pyramid denotes a monument that resembles the
geometrical figure of the same name. It is almost exclusively applied to
the stone structures of ancient Egypt and of the pre-Columbian cultures
of Central America and Mexico.
Egypt
The Egyptian pyramids were funerary monuments built for the pharaohs and their closest relatives. Most date from the Old Kingdom (c.2686-2181 BC) and are found on the west bank of the Nile, in a region approximately 100 km (60 mi) long and situated south of the delta, between Hawara and Abu Ruwaysh. Pyramids developed from the MASTABA, a low, rectangular stone structure erected over a tomb. The oldest pyramid known, the Step Pyramid of King Zoser at SAQQARA (c.2650 BC), has a large mastaba as its nucleus and consists of six terraces of diminishing sizes, one built upon the other. It was surrounded by an elaborate complex of buildings, now partially restored, whose function related to the cult of the dead.
The next phase of development is represented by the 93-m-high (305-ft) pyramid at Maydum, built at the order of Snefru, founder of the 4th dynasty (c.2613-c.2498 BC). This structure was designed as a step pyramid; later the steps were covered with a smooth stone facing to produce sloping sides. The pyramid at Dahshur was also built by Snefru. Halfway between its base and apex its inclination was changed, so that it is bent in appearance.
A characteristic feature of all classical Egyptian pyramids, including those of Snefru, is a temple complex, comprising a lower or valley temple at a short distance from the pyramid and connected by a causeway with a mortuary temple, situated adjacent to the pyramid. The most elaborate example of the temple complex is found at Giza, near modern Cairo, where the 4th-dynasty pyramids of Kings KHUFU (Cheops), KHAFRE (Chephren), and MENKAURE (Mycerinus) lie in close proximity to each other. The pyramid of Khufu, erected c.2500 BC, is the largest in the world, measuring 230 m (756 ft) on each side of its base and originally measuring 147 m (482 ft) high. Beginning in the 10th century AD the entire Giza complex served as a source of building materials for the construction of Cairo, and, as a result, all three pyramids were stripped of their original smooth outer facing of limestone. The temples have disappeared, with the exception of the extremely well preserved granite valley temple of Khafre.
The last great pyramid of the Old Kingdom is that of Pepi II of the 6th dynasty (c.2345-2181 BC). In the following turbulent era (the First Intermediate Period, c.2181-2040 BC), almost no pyramids were built. When King Mentuhotep II of the 11th dynasty attained power (c.2060 BC), pyramid construction resumed. During the 11th and 12th dynasties until 1786 BC, pyramids continued to be built (at Dahshur and al-Faiyum), but later, rock-cut tombs were preferred.
The first structures built in imitation of the pyramids of ancient Egypt were those built by Nubian and Meroitic kings from c.700 BC to AD 350. Near the cities of MEROE and Napata (in modern Sudan) are rows of royal graves that consist of small, steeply sloped pyramids. Of special interest is the Cestius pyramid (12 BC) in Rome, the funerary monument of the tribune Gaius Cestius, which for many centuries was the only European example of an Egyptian-style pyramid. During the neoclassical period in the art of the 18th century the French architect Etienne Louis BOULLEE and the Italian sculptor Antonio CANOVA designed a number of pyramidal-shaped funerary monuments.
Pre-Columbian America
All pre-Columbian pyramids are truncated, stepped pyramids and served as the foundations for temples. The largest ones usually slope less steeply than the Egyptian pyramids, but the smaller ones often have an even steeper incline. Stairways carved into one or more sides of the pyramid lead to the temple.
Pyramids were erected by the ancient Mesoamerican cultures of the MAYA, TOLTECS, and AZTECS, and they are found in many areas of Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Most were built during the classic period (AD 300-900) and in the following postclassic period (900-1542). The pyramid of EL TAJIN, which was built between the 4th and 9th centuries in northern Veracruz, Mexico, is unique.
On each of its terraces is a series of recessed niches in which sacrificial offerings were probably placed. In the pyramid of the Temple of the Inscriptions at PALENQUE, Mexico, which also dates from the classic period, a passage discovered beneath the floor of the temple leads to a richly furnished burial crypt deep within the pyramid. One of the largest pyramids in Central America is the 66-m-high (216-ft) Pyramid of the Sun (2d century AD) at TEOTIHUACAN, Mexico.
Temple-pyramid complexes at late civic-ceremonial centers such as CHICHEN ITZA and UXMAL, dating from the postclassic Maya-Toltec period, are generally lower in height, topped with a larger, flat platform; they therefore are generally not considered true pyramids.
Quantity of finds
The approach to excavation which involves taking note of every small piece has resulted in a huge amount of finds coming from some of the contexts excavated. The history of excavation of Theban tombs has, up to the 1970s, been one of general disregard for anything which is not beautiful. Many tombs were cleared out between the end of the 19th century and about 1950, but we have almost no record of what was found, apart from a small number of objects in museums. The numbers of broken pieces of burials must have run into hundred and thousands, as our own work has shown. The two following tables summarise the quantities of what we have found: [if you want to skip the the tables click here]
Table 1: Summary of material from shafts inside TT99, 1993-95 Year Location Small finds Linen (kg) Pottery (kg) Wood (kg) 1993 Shaft E 6,244 15.847 56.480 4.530 Shaft A 1,158 5.890 48.330 1.365 1993/4 Shaft A room 1 4,032 9.225 37.885 3.345 1994 Shaft B 2,563 11.293 50.980 2.730 Shaft B room 1 2,170 14.430 23.440 5.095 Shaft D 1,230 5.310 38.530 1.645 1995 Shaft D room 1 3,891 10.260 30.380 4.725 Shaft D room 2 929 5.820 17.625 2.830 Shaft C 4,573 18.165 23.800 7.635 Shaft C room 1 1,246 1.840 13.600 8.095 Totals 28,036 98.080 341.075 41.995
Table 2: Summary of material from the courtyard of TT99, 1996 Year Location Small finds Linen (kg) Pottery (kg) Wood (kg) 1996 Courtyard 1,076 (little) > 400 (little) Totals 1,076 (little) > 400 (little)
You can see that there is a big difference in terms of finds between inside and outside the tomb. This is because most of the material found, apart from pottery, is associated with burials, which were made inside the tomb. Pottery was placed with burials, but of course was also an essential part of the everyday requirements of the people who used the tomb as a dwelling in the post-Pharaonic period, and thus it is hardly surprising that more pottery was found in one excavation season in the courtyard than in the whole of the five shafts at the rear of the tomb.
Examples of objects
A wide range of different types of object have come to light. Click on the following links to see some examples of some types of object--usually those of which we have the best photographs!
Amulets Coffin fragments Funerary cones Human remains (mummies!) Ostraca Pottery Ptah-Sokar-Osiris figures Shabtis Statuary Textiles A table showing the number of objects of different types found so far
So what does it all mean ?
As always, it depends on the contexts, and we have two. I commented above that there was a dramatic difference between the amount of material from inside the tomb and from the courtyard, so let's take them separately.
Shafts
The objects found inside the tomb are almost totally later in date than the tomb, apart from some ceramics and the large statue.
A number of objects bear the name of king Shabaka of the 25th dynasty, one with a date of year 10, giving a possible date for one burial (Wedjahor) of about 705 BC. Can we tie the other material in with this date? The answer is broadly yes; one indicator that things might run later is a sealing bearing the name of a priest Psamtek. That name, the Egyptian original of the Greek Psammetichos, is unlikely to be found in Thebes until some time after the Saite king Psammetichos I took control of Egypt in 664 BC (26th dynasty), and in fact more likely after he began to intervene directly in Theban affairs by installing his daughter Nitocris as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in 656 BC. However, most of the objects found would not be out of place in either the later 25th or early 26th dynasty; more work is still needed, but these dates seem to encompass broadly all the material.
There is of course later material still, and it all appears to date from periods when the tomb has ceased to be used as a place of burial but was in fact lived in. This can be said to be the late Roman or Coptic period, through mediaeval Islamic times, and right up to 1907 (see below).
Courtyard
If the shafts inside the tomb do not belong to the original 18th dynasty builder, Senneferi, then his place of burial must logically be outside (as we have considered on another page). However, in the course of our first season of excavation in the courtyard, no obviously 18th dynasty material came to light, so if it is there it should be exclusively in the shafts themselves. In fact the dynastic material was not at all coherant and has not obviously come from a particular set of burials. This question is still open.
What is clear is the evidence of habitation in Coptic and Islamic times--modern objects, coptic ostraca, and so on. This fits in well with the evidence of the various buildings encounted and recorded as the courtyard was excavated. Tying this in with the material from inside the tomb, and the architecural and decorative effect of human habitation, it is clear that the later material comes from the use of the tomb as a dwelling place.