- between 1600 and 1760, France and Britain were locked in an ongoing rivalry over Acadia, Newfoundland and Quebec

- lead to war and a British victory

War Over North America

- French Strategy... to seek a victory in Europe

- British Strategy... to launch an all-out offensive in North America

-1757 British gained control over the Ohio Valley

-1758 the French fortress at Louisbourg fell

-1759 the city of Quebec fell

- there, on the Plains of Abraham, the army of General James Wolfe defeated the French forces led by General Louis-Joseph Montcalm

- Montcalm made three critical mistakes a) mistook British ships for French supply ships b) allowed the British up a narrow path to the Plains c) had his troops leave the protection of the walls of Quebec City

- the French in Montreal surrendered in 1760 because they were surrounded by the British

- the Conquest of New France was complete

- 1763, the Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War; under the treaty, New France became part of the British Empire

The Quebec Act

- Les Canadiens, the French speaking people of Canada

- as French-speaking Roman Catholics, the Canadiens differed in both language and religion from their British conquerors

- their laws and their customs were unlike those of the British colonists to the south

- problem for the British ... How could they best govern a people so different from themselves?

- British military rule in Quebec was replaced by a civilian government

- control lay in the hands of a governor appointed by Britain and the members of his council

Proclamation of 1763, created the Quebec colony

- it promised that Quebec would receive English laws and an elected Assembly as quickly as possible

- protection for the Canadien way of life, including traditional laws and the Roman Catholic religion, was also vaguely promised by the Proclamation of 1763

- Governor James Murray appeared in no hurry to introduce an elected Assembly

- creation of an elected Assembly would give the small number of British residents control over Quebec

- Murray recognized that the introduction of an elected Assembly could create serious conflicts between the Canadiens and the British colonists in Quebec

- his refusal to put this aspect of the Proclamation into effect would cost him his job

- 1767, increasing friction between the American colonies to the south and the mother country

- Sir Guy Carleton, the British governor of Quebec from 1766 to 1770, feared that this friction might lead to a revolt in the British-American colonies

- realized that there needed to be loyal subjects in Quebec

- he tried to persuade the British government that the distinctive Quebec way of life had to be retained if the colony was to stay within the British Empire

- he claimed that the Canadiens would never be assimilated

- by guaranteeing the power of the seigneurs and the clergy, argued Carleton, these leaders would ensure loyalty to Britain from the people of Quebec

- the result of his arguments was the Quebec Act of 1774

- it allowed the Canadiens to retain their language, Romarn Catholic religion and their civil laws, while providing English criminal law for the colony

- the Quebec Act also enlarged the territorial limits of the colony beyond those set out in the Proclamation of 1763

- inclusion of the Ohio Valley as part of Quebec would block the westward expansion of the increasingly troublesome colonies to the south (fur trading)

- to the east, Labrador was attached to Quebec, giving the colony control over the rich fishing and sealing grounds

- the Quebec Act made no provision for an elected Assembly

- continued rule by a governor appointed by the British government (he would be assisted by a council of local leaders)

- failure to create an elected Assembly angered the British population of the colony

- but problems could be created at home if the Roman Catholics were allowed to vote and if only the British were able to vote it would mean giving the power to the Protestant minority in Quebec thus angering the French majority

- the seigneurs and the clergy reacted favorably to the Quebec Act

- English merchants were pleased with the expansion of Quebec's territory

The American Revolution and its Consequences

- within a year of the Quebec Act (1774), the American Revolution began

The Growing Crisis in the Thirteen Colonies

- the thirteen colonies had their own identity and way of life

- colonists thought of themselves more as Americans, than as British subjects, but others remained loyal to Britain

- Britain had been unhappy with the thirteen colonies' military effort during the Seven War

- even more upsetting was the Americans continued trading with the French during the War

- British reaction was labelled the Intolerable Acts

1) the Admiralty Court of the Navy tried and convicted the colonial smugglers without the trial-by-jury procedure to which the colonists were accustomed

2) to meet the growing costs of defending the North American colonies the Stamp Act of 1765 came about

- it stated that a stamp had to be affixed to legal documents and newspapers to certify that a tax had been paid

3) the Quartering Act of 1765, required Americans to provide room and board for British soldiers

4) the Townshend Acts of 1767, required colonists to pay duties on tea, glass, paints and paper imported from Britain

- colonial leaders boycotted these goods

- tax later discarded, but the tea tax remained

- colonists were frustrated because they were being taxed by a government in which they had no representation

-clashes over the Townshend Acts resulted in the deaths of some colonists (the Boston Massacre)

- the Boston Tea Party was a protest against the tea tax

5) the Quebec Act made colonists upset because of:

a) the blockage of westward expansion of the American colonies into the Ohio Valley

b) the protection given to the Roman catholic religion

c) the failure to provide an elected Assembly for the Quebec colony

- 1774 Continental Congress (leaders of the thirteen colonies) called for a boycott of British goods

- neither Quebec, nor Nova Scotia took part

- 1775 Americans rebelled, they believed they needed to control Quebec and Nova Scotia

- they over took Montreal, but could not take Quebec City, 1776 British brought supplies and reinforcements to Quebec by ship

- the Americans were forced to retreat

- 1777, the Americans regrouped and defeated the British at Saratoga

- Americans realized they just wanted to keep Britain out of the thirteen colonies

- 1776 colonial leaders met in Philadelphia and put together the Declaration of Independence (i.e. breaking all ties with Britain)

- American Revolution continued for five years (ended 1781)

- Treaty of Paris, negotiated by the United States, France and Britain, was signed in 1783, ending the War (France had aided the colonies)

- Britain gave up much of the Ohio territory

-the size and strength of the British had shrunk

-a new group was created called the Loyalists

The Loyalists

- one-third of the colonists remained loyal to Britain and fled the American colonies

- most were rewarded for their loyalty with food rations, a iittle money and, above all, free land

- problems arose because these people were used to having their own elected assemblies

- 1784 Britain created the new colony of New Brunswick with its own elected Assembly

- in Quebec loyalists were also frustrated with not having an elected Assembly, and with the traditional French laws

The Constitutional Act of 1791

- 1791 Britain split the Quebec colony

- the western section (mostly loyalists) became Upper Canada

- the eastern area became Lower Canada

- the Act also created elected Assemblies in both Upper and Lower Canada, but power remained minimal

- this was to prevent a similar situation as what happened in the American colonies

- governor chose the members of the Executive Council and they helped him rule

The War of 1812-1814

- between Britain and the United States

- hostilities broke out due to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the Indian Wars in the western territories of the United States

- Americans had traded with both sides in the European conflict

- British searched American ships, this caused resentment

- the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, expanded the area of the United States

- Natives resisted this move

- some say the British aided the Indians by supplying them with guns and ammunition

- angry Americans (the War Hawks) argued for war against Britain

- 1812 the War Hawks declared war on Britain, therefore attacked the closest British target -- the Canadas

- many Americans remained neutral and there was no victory

- fighting took place in the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes area

- British, Canadians and Canadiens took up arms

- Napoleonic Wars in 1814 ended and British troops were freed to come to North America

- Armistice was signed on Christmas Eve 1814

Towards Confederation, 1865-1867

- internal problems in the colonies in mid-1860s because of growing fears of invasion or annexation by the United States

- Britain worried about the costs of maintaining and defending the colonies

- idea proposed by Durham in 1839 ... Unification of British North America

Note: Durham also put forward the idea of responsible government for the BNA colonies i.e. government in which the Executive Council must have the confidence of the Legislative Assembly in order to govern. At first Durham's recommendation was rejected by the British government but later accpeted.

- questions as to the form of government

- the result ... a federal union, with powers assigned to both the central government and provinces

The Search for Support for Confederation

- leaders of the Great Coalition (i.e. Brown, Galt, Cartier, and MacDonald) did not envision a fully independent Canada

- instead they foresaw an auxiliary kingdom - one still tied to Britain

- Britain would play a role in military defence and in foreign relations

Three important meetings 1) Charlottetown Conference 1864

2)Quebec Conference 1864

3)London Conference 1866-1867

The Charlottetown Conference

- Atlantic colonies concerned about their weak and isolated position

-1861-1862 ready to have an intercolonial railway built

-1863 government of the Canadas backed out

-upset Maritimes thought about a union between themselves

-later railway proposed again at this conference

-Joseph Howe leading opposition to union with the Canadas

The Quebec Conference

- debates of a proposed union

- some favored a legislative union (central government), while others wanted a federal union

- a legislative union would have elected representatives from local areas to sit in a central Parliament

- there would be one level of government, one system of taxation and one set of laws - one drawback ... not everybody wants to be treated alike

- a federal government would have a strong central government with the provinces having limited powers

- seventy-two resolutions were the framework for the proposed union (basis for the British North America Act)

- Britain supported the union because the colonies were costing a great deal of money

External Pressures on the Colonies

American Threats

- United States Civil War 1861 (over slavery)

- south wanted to form the Confederate States of America

- industrial northern states defeated the Confederacy

-British had supported the losing side and now Canada was afraid of invasion

- Irish Catholics in the United States had a secret organization (the Fenians)

-they wanted Irish Independence

-Canada was their closest way of attacking the British

-1866 they invaded Canada but they lost

-calls for Union amongst the BNA colonies were made stronger

Reciprocity Ended

- Reciprocity Treaty between the United States and British colonies expired in 1865

-treaty was dropped because of feelings of British interference in the Civil War

- Americans thought this would lead to the end of the colonies i.e. economic collapse

- but the colonies promoted interprovincial trade

- trade concerns were used by the Great Coalition to promote the idea of Union

Confederation Achieved

The London Conference

- British North America Act received Royal assent on March 29, 1867

- the new Dominion had four provinces Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec

- in 1982 Prime MinisterTrudeau brought home a Constitution that could be changed in Canada (renamed the Constitution Act, 1867)

The Structure of Government under the BNA Act

- the BNA Act made Canada a constitutional monarchy

- law-making powers to the Crown and to a Parliament comprising the House of Commons and Senate

- lower chamber of the House of Commons ... elected members of Parliament ... representation was based on population

- the Senate would have equal representation of each region ... appointed to the Senate

- the main purpose of the BNA Act was, and still is, to define the distribution of powers between the federal and provincial levels of government

- Canada's first P.M. was Sir John A. Macdonald

- under the leadership of John A. Macdonald, along with Brown, Galt and Cartier, Confederation was achieved in 1867

Opening of the West

The Fur Trade and Western Exploration

- in 1670, with the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company, English traders also became involved in the search for new sources of furs in western Canada

- lead to competition (French traders and the HBC)

- HBC had exclusive rights to trade in a vast region known as Rupert's Land.

- HBC's main fort: Ft. Churchill

- HBC traded mostly in this area, but when their share of the fur trade dropped, they had to begin to look west

- 1784, the North West Company was formed

- two types of partners in NWC

1) based in Montreal - they sold the furs and provided supplies and goods to be traded for furs

2) hivernants - stayed West to trade eg Simon Fraser, David Thompson and Alexander Mackenzie

- NWC - partners received a share of the profits

- HBC - owned and run by businessmen in London / employees; were paid an annual salary for their work

- voyageurs - paddled the trading canoes

- Metis were the children of Indian and French decent

Fort William, a Fur Trading Center

- center of NWC's trading network was Fort William at the western end of Lake Superior

- portage: when the crew would have to carry the canoe andsupplies because the waters were too rough

The Fur Trade and the Native Peoples

- HBC had standards when trading and did not trade alcohol to the Native people

- NWC had no standard and did trade alcohol to the Natives - HBC had to trade like the NWC in order to compete - some Native Indian bands became dependent on the fur trade for survival .... Why?

- many new diseases surfaced because the Indians lacked immunity

Exploring the Pacific Coast: The Maritime Fur Trade

- the second fur trade took place on the Pacific coast ofNorth America and involved the sea otter pelts for sale in China

- 1778 James Cook explored the northwest coast of North America

- his task was to determine whether a northern passage linking the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans existed

From Exploration to Settlement: The Red River Colony

The Founding of the Colony

- beginning of the 19th century, the economy of western Canada was based on hunting, trapping and fishing (almost no agriculture)

- Thomas Douglas was the driving force behind this establishment of the colony at Red River. He was part of the Hudson's Bay Company.

Conflict at Red River

- the governor of the colony, Miles MacDonell, prohibited the export of pemmican from the colony

- the Metis ignored his orders. The Metis sold the pemmican to the NorthWest Company.

-the resulting confrontation was called the "pemmican war"

- outraged by the seizure of pemmican, the NWC sought revenge

- agents encouraged the Metis to harass the colonists and drive them out of the colony

- the Metis took over

The Triumph of the Hudson's Bay Company

- conflict between the HBC and the NWC disrupted the fur trade

- they merged in 1821, giving the HBC a monopoly over the fur trade in all unsettled lands north of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes

Manitoba: Canada's Fifth Province

- at the time of Confederation, western Canada was still under the complete control of the HBC

The New Dominion Expands

- "Manifest Destiny" - the United States' wish to rule all of North America

- they also wanted this because of their resentment towards Britain, which had supported the defeated Confederacy during the Civil War

- 1869 Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada

Manitoba:Creation of a New Province

- the Metis feared that the Canadian Government was going to take away their lands

- Metis seized Fort Garry, and Riel formed a provisional government

- Metis were not opposed to becoming part of Canada, however, they were upset that the Canadian government had not bothered to discuss its plans for the area with the Metis or even to inform them of its intentions

- 1870 Manitoba was created as Canada's fifth province

- the Metis had named it

The Death of Thomas Scott

- Metis leader decided that the Canadian Party agitators had to be detained in order to demonstrate the provisional government's authority

- Thomas Scott was arrested

- Metis believed Scott was responsible for the drowning death of a young Metis boy after the skirmish and accused of treason against Metis rule

- on March 4, 1870, Scott was executed by a Metis firing squad

- Macdonald ordered 1200 soldiers sent west under the command of Colonel Garnet Wolseley

- these soldiers were to assert a strong Canadian presence in the North West, to prevent the Americans from taking advantage of events there, but when they arrived at Fort Garry the Metis were gone and Riel had fled to the United States

Declining Native Population in the West

- epidemics of European introduced diseases struck the people (smallpox)

- destruction of the buffalo herds, the major food source for the Metis and Native peoples, also lead to starvation and malnutrition

- with the introduction of improved medical care in the 1930s, Native populations in western Canada began to increase again

The Western Frontier

Problems on the Prairies

The Whisky Trade

- many deaths and murders followed drinking sessions

- disease and malnutrition were rampant as alcoholism interfered with traditional Native hunting and food-gathering activities

- the center of the whisky trade was Fort Whoop-Up (S. Alta)

- Cypress Hills Massacre brought the whisky trade to the attention of eastern Canadians

- 1874 a group of whisky traders attacked a band of Assiniboine whom they believed to have stolen some of their horses

- creation of the North West Mounted Police to end the lawlessness on the Prairies

Building the Railway

- cross-country railway promised to B.C. in 1871

Starting the Railroad

- increases in taxes

- Easterners not happy

-government had to look for private investors

-Americans were interested in getting involved

-Macdonald did not want this, and there was fear of annexation

- Sir Hugh Allan, a Montreal businessamn, secretly paid thousands of dollars to prominent members of the Government (the money came from Allan's American partners) in order to get the contract to build the railway

- Macdonald urged Allan to break off his connections, and the American businessmen were outraged

- the Americans sent letters to newspapers telling of the scandal (later called the Pacific Scandal)

- led to the resignation of MacDonald's government in 1873

- Alexander Mackenzie of the Liberals was called upon to form the next government

Railway Building in Western Canada

- Macdonald fought the 1878 election on a promise to restore the country to economic health: his "National Policy" emphasized the importance of the railway and western settlement

- he won the election

- Onderdonk started work on the Fraser River section of the line in 1880

- private money had to be raised to build the railway

The CPR Incorporated

-Van Horne the general manager of the CPR in 1882

-many Chinese were used as labourors on the railway

- railway completed in 1885

Riel and the NorthWest Rebellion

Background to NorthWest Rebellion

- the Metis were unhappy again (Recall: The Red River Rebellion) with the Canadian government

-delegation encouraged Riel to come back (Recall: he had gone to the USA)and help his people

-Riel sought to unite Natives, Metis and white settlers in a common effort to get a better deal from the federal government

- Macdonald ignored the demands sent by Riel

- 1885 Riel gained support of a rebellion, he promised that the Mounted Police would be "wiped out of existence" in less than a week

Rebellion Breaks Out

- Riel declared a provisional government with himself as leader

- he demanded that Crozier, the NWMP Superintendent, surrender the police post at Fort Carlton, otherwise he would attack

- Crozier did not surrender, and the rebellion had begun

- 1885 the Rebellion was over

-the railway was a key in the defeat of the rebels as troops could be sent westward quickly. The government was able to use this as an argument for further financing to complete the railway to the Pacific.

The Trial of Louis Riel

- many Cree and Metis were tried for crimes related to the rebellion

- English-speaking Protestants demanded that Riel be convicted and executed

- many Quebecers saw Riel as a hero

- Riel would not claim insanity, he said that he had led his people into rebellion only because the Canadian government had done nothing to help the Metis

- the jury found him guilty of treason and sentenced him to be hanged

- there was an appeal

- he was executed in November 1885

Towards the Twentieth Century

Settlement of the West

- 1896, the Liberal Party, led by Sir Wilfrid Laurier, came to power

- he campaigned with the ideas of increased immigration and expanded settlement of the West

- the Canadian government offered 160 acres of free land on the Prairies to would-be immigrants, and promised to pay their passage to Canada