Mark Cruz
											IB BIO HL

1.1.1		Discuss the theory that living organisms are composed of cells
Skeletal muscle and some fungal hyphae are not divided into cells but have a multinucleate cytoplasm. Some biologists consider unicellular organisms to be acellular
all other animals are composed of cells, viruses are not considered alive. All things considered to be “living” have cells.

1.1.2	State that a virus is a non-cellular structure consisting of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat

1.1.3	State that all cells are formed from other cells
	
1.1.4	Explain three advantages of using light microscopes
Color images, larger field of view, easily prepared sample material, possibility of examining living material.

1.1.5	Outline the advantages of using electron microscopes
they offer better resolution/magnification. Scanning and transmission microscopes do not have the sheer magnification

1.1.6	Define organelle
	An organelle is a discrete structure withing a cell, and has a specific function
											
1.1.7	Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units

molecules = 1nm, membranes 10 nm, viruses 100nm, bacteria 1 um, organelles 10 um cells up to 100 um

1.1.8

1.1.9	Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ration as a factor limiting cell size

	volume increase cubically when compared to surface area. Too large a cell will have proportionately less surface area compared to volume, and thus the cell would die because of the large amount of time it would take materials to diffuse into the cell	

1.1.10	State the unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life	

1.1.11	Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

1.2.1	Draw a generalized prokaryotic cell as seen in electron micrographs

1.2.2	State one function for each of the following

	cell wall - protection
	plasma membrane - selectively permeable, allows materials to enter/exit cell
	cytoplasm - support, transport
	ribosomes - protein synthesis
	naked DNA - Mitosis and protein production

1.2.3	State that prokaryotes show a wide range of metabolic activity, including fermentation, photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation

1.3.1	Draw a diagram to show the ultrastructrue of a generalized animal cell as seen in electron micrographs

1.3.2	State one function for each of the following

	ribosomes - protein production
	rough ER - protein, organelle production
	lysosome - waste processing
	mitochondria - ATP synthesis
	nucleus - command center

1.3.3	Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Differences should include naked DNA versus DNA associated with protein, DNA in cytoplasm versus DNA inclosed in nuclear envelope, no mitochondria versus mitochondria, 70S versus 80S ribosomes

1.3.4	Describe three difference between plant and animal cells
	Animal cells lack cell walls, large central vacuole, and chromoplasts

1.3.5	State the composition and function of the plant cell wall.
The plant cell wall contains cellulose and microfibules and it keeps outs elements and offers protection and support

1.4.1	Draw a diagram to show the fluid mosaic model of a biological membrane

1.4.2	Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes

	the hydrophobic tails point away from water and the hydrophilic heads face the water

1.4.3	List the functions of membrane proteins including horomone binding sites, enzymes, electron carriers, channels for passive and pumps for active transport.

1.4.4	Define diffusion and osmosis
Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration

1.4.5	Explain passive transport across membranes in terms of diffusion
	Materials diffuse across membranes from higher to lower concentrations

1.4.6	Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes

	protein pumps pump the protein against the gradient. This process is fueled by ATP.

1.4.7	Explain how vessicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane

	Materials are covered while in transit so they do not separate

1.4.8	Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and reform during endocytosis and exocytosis

1.5.1	State that the cell division cycle involves interphase, mitosis and cytokeneisis

1.5.2	State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many biochemical reactions occur, as well as DNA transcription and replication

1.5.3	Describe the events that occur in the 4 phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)

	Prophase - chromosomes to chromatin
	Metaphase - centromeres align on opposite poles, chromosomes align on middle plate
	Anaphase - Chromosomes migrate toward opposite poles
	Telophase - cytokenesis occurs, resulting in two identical daughter cells

1.5.4	Explain how mitosis produces two genetically indentical nuclei
All DNA within the nucleus is duplicated during Interphase, identical copies of each chromosome are pulled to opposite poles of the original cell, which separates into two cells

1.5.5	Outline the difference in mitosis and cytokinesis between animal and plant cells
	Plant cells have no centrioles and Animal cells do not form a cell plate
1.5.6	State that growth, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis

1.5.7	State that tumors (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ

2.1.1	State that the most frequently occuring chemical elements in living thins are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

2.1.2	A variety of other elements are needed by living organisms including nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, iron, and sodium

2.1.3	State one role for each element in 2.1.2

	Carbon - fuel in plants
	hydrogen - used in ATP cycle
	Oxygen - electron carrier
	Nitrogen - plant roots
	calcium - construction of bone 
	sodium - part of salt

2.1.4 - Outline the difference between an atom and an ion
	atoms have no charge, ions have + or - charge

2.1.5	Outline the properties of water that are significant to living organisms including transparency, cohesion, solvent properties and thermal properties. Refer to the polarity of water molecules and hydrogen bonding where relevant
		Thermal properties - Large specific heat
		Solvent properties - universal solvent

2.1.6	Explain the significance to organisms of water as coolant, transport medium and habitat, in terms of its properties
	
Sweating reduces heat in mammals due to its high specific heat, animals can live in water due to its transparency and self cohesion 

2.21 -2.24

2.2.6	Draw the structure of a generalized dipeptide, showing the peptide linkage

2.2.7	List two examples for each of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

	mono - glucose and fructose
	di - lactose and malcuose
	poly - staven and cellulose

2.2.8	State one function of a monsaccharide and one function of polysaccharide

	mono - energy in cellular respiration
	poly - production of glucose in plants

2.2.9	State three functions of lipids
	energy storage, cushioning, insulation

2.2.10	Discuss the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage
	Carbohydrates are used for instant storage, lipids are used for long term storage
	Energy is stored in bonds

3.3.1	Define enzyme and active site

enzymes facilitate chemical reactions. Active sites are where substrates can attach to enzymes			

2.3.2	Explain enzyme - substrate specific
	enzymes only accept certain substrates

2.3.3	Explain the effects of temp, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity

pH and temp can denature enzymes. High substrate concentration can increase enzyme activity

2.3.4	Denaturation - a structural change in a protein that results in aloss of its biological properties.

2.3.5	Explain the use of pectinase in fruit juice production, and one other commercial application of enzymes in biotech.
	Enzymes are used in meat tenderizers and glucose syrup

2.4.1

2.4.2	State the name of the four DNA bases
	Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine

2.4.3

2.4.4	Explain how the DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds

A and T pair up along with G and C. hydrogen bonds form between the opposing codons and the DNA wraps around itself

2.4.5	Draw a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA

2.5.1	DNA replication is semi-conservative

2.5.2	Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding of the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by the formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase

2.5.3	Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA
Complementary base pairing aids in replication because there is only one other complementary base pair for each base pair.

2.6.1	Compare the structure of RNA and DNA

	RNA contains Uracil instead of Adenine, and is single stranded

2.6.2	Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase

2.6.3	Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases
	The code constists of codons (3 bases) in a row that outlines protein production

2.6.4	Explain the process of translation, leading to peptied linkage formation

DNA is unzipped, then RNA polymerase synthesizes a strand of RNA. The RNA is then cut as it exits the nucleus, the resulting mRNA is sent to a ribosomes. Each codon is translated into tRNA which then seeks out its own animo acid and then brigns it to the ribosome which joins with a peptide link.

2.6.5	Define degenerate and universal as they relate to the genetic code

	Degenerate - having more than one base triplet to code for one amino acid
	Universal - found in all living organisms

2.6.6	Explain the relation ship between one gene and one polypetide

One gene lays on the production of one polypeptide chain. Thus, the gene produces the polypeptide

2.7.1	Define cell respiration
Cell respiration - controlled release of energy in the form of ATP from organic compounds in cells

2.7.2	State that in cell respiration glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down into pyruvate with a small yield of ATP

2.7.3	Explain that in anaerobic cell respiration pyruvate is converted into lactate or ethanol and carbon dioxide in the cytoplasm with no further yield of ATP
	Ethanol and CO2 are produces in yeast, lactose is produced in humans

2.7.5	Explain that in aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP

2.8.1	State that photosyntehiss involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

2.8.2	State that white light form the son is composed of a range of wavelengths

2.8.4	Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue, and green light by chlorophyll

	Green light is reflected by cholrophyll, all other colors are absorbed

2.8.5	State that light energy is used to split water moeluces to give oxygen, hydrogen and ATP

2.8.6	State that ATP and hydrogen are sued to fix carbon dioxide and make organic molecules

2.8.7	Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of CO2 or indirectly by increase in biomass

2.8.8	Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration of the rate of photosynthesis

Too high or too low of a temperature hinders photosynthesis. Light intensity can cause essential proteins to denature. The presence of CO2 will raise production, but eventually level off. 

3.1.1	State the eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and protein

2.1.2	State that in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their structure

3.1.3	Describe one application of karyotyping
	Karyotyping can show whether chromosomes are damaged or missing

3.1.4	Define gene, allele, and genome
	gene - a hertiable factor that controls a specific characteristic
allele- one specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one or a few bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the same gene
	Genome - the whole of the genetic information of an organism	

3.1.5	Define Gene mutation
When a gene is altered from original form, usually resulting from misarrangement, deletion, or addition of a base in a codon

3.1.6	Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the process of transcription and translation, using the example of sickle cell anemia.

	GAG changes to GTG causing valine to replace glutamine.		

3.3.1

3.3.2	Construct a punnet grid

3.3.3	Construct a pedigree chart

3.34	State that some genes have more than 2 alleles

3.3.35	Describe Abo blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles

	O = ii
	A - IaIa or Iai
	B - IbIb or Ibi
	AB- IaIb

3.3.6	Outline how the sex chromosomes determine gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans

Males are XY, females are XX. Sperm can either contain X or Y chromsomes, eggs only contain X chromosome. Sex is dependent on the male.

3.3.7	State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from they shorter Y chromosome in humans

3.3.9	State two examples of sex linkage

	Hemophilia and color blindness are both on the X chromosome

3.3.10 State that a human female can be homo or heterozygous with respect to sex linked genes

3.3.11	Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X linked recessive alleles
	
3.3.12	Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance

	9:3:3:1 Mendellian Ratio

3.3.13	Deduce the genotypes or phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts

3.2.1	State that meiosis is a reduction division in terms of diploid and haploid numbers of chromosomes

3.2.2	Define homologous chromosomes
	Chromosomes that have the same physical structure and same genetic loci

3.2.3	Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of chromosomes followed by two divisions, which results in  four haploid cells

Prophase I - Chromosomes begin to condense. In a process called synapsis, homologous chromosomes come together as pairs, forming a tetrad of four chromatids. This is where crossing over occurs. Chromosomes then begin to migrate toward the metaphase plate.

	Metaphase I - Chromosomes align in the middle of the plate in homologous pairs

Anaphase I - Spindle fibers separates homologous chromosomes, but sister chromatids remain attached.

	Telophase I - Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell.

	Prophase II - Chromosomes move toward metaphase II plate

Metaphase II - Chromosomes align on the metaphase plate, kinetochores of sister chromatids of each chromosome point towards opposite poles.

	Anaphase II - Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles

Telophase II - Nuclei develop at opposite poles and cytokenisis produces 4 haploid daughter cells.

3.2.4	Explain how the movement of chromosomes during meiosis can give rise to genetic variety in the resulting haploid cells.
	Crossing over during prophase I results in the exchange of genetic material

3.2.5	Explain that non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21)

3.2.6	State Mendel’s law of segregation

3.2.7	Explain the relation ship between Mendel’s law of segregation and meiosis