7.2.1	Draw the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs

7.2.3	Explain the light dependent reactions
	
Light reactions convert solar energy into chemical energy. Light reactions occur in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. Chlorophyl is arranged into to photosystems within the thylakoid membrane. In the center of each photosystem is a molecule of chlorophyll a. Whenever a photon of light is absorbed by any branch of the system, the energy is transmitted until it reaches the chlorophyl a in the center. The photon of light excites one of the electrons in the molecule of chlorophyll, moving it to a higher energy level where it is captured by the primary electron acceptor. Initially, a photon of light excites an electron in the chlorophyll a of photosystem II (p680). The Electron lost from p680 is replaced by photolysis, which splits a water molecule into two hydrogen ions and an oxygen atom, which combines with another to form O2 which is released. From the primary acceptor the electron moves down an ETC, which produces ATP. This process is called photophosphorylation. AT the end of the ETC the chloroplast fills an electron hole in P700, which was caused when light excited an electron to a higher state. The primary electron acceptor of photosystem one gives the excited electron to Fd, which in turn transfers the electrons from FD to NADP+ through NADP + reductase, turning NADP+ into NADPH. Thus, the results of the light dependent reactions are NADPH and ATP, which move help power the Calvin Cycle. 

7.2.5	Explain the light-independent reactions

The Calvin Cycle first attaches each CO2 molecule to RuBP (ribulose biphosphate) through an enzyme called rubisco. The resulting six Carbon molecule immediately splits into two 3 carbon molecules of phosphoglycerate. Each molecule then receives a phosphate group from ATP. Next, NADPH uses electrons to reduce the molecule to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). One molecule of G3P exits the cycle to be used by the platn, while five molecules of G3P aare rearranged using 3 molecules of ATP to form 3 molecules of RuBP, which continue the Calvin cycle again. See page 197. The Calvin cycle produces G3p, and NADP+ as well as ADP which move into the light reactions.

7.2.7	Draw the action spectrum of photosynthesis
		See page 188
7.2.8	Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum pf photo synthetic pigments in green plants

The absorption spectrum is a graph plotting a pigments light absorption versus wave length.  Since chlorophyl a is the primary molecule involved in light absorption in photosynthesis, the absorption spectrum for chlorophyll a provides clues to the effectiveness of photosynthesis under different wavelengths of light. An action spectrum illuminates chromoplasts with different colors of light and then plotting wavelength against some measure of photo synthetic rate, such as oxygen release or Co2 consumption. The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a does not match the action spectrum of chlorophyll because chlorophyll a is not the only pigment which absorbs light (there are also carotenoids and chlorophyll b)

7.2.9	Explain the concept of limiting factors with reference to light intensity, temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

	Photosynthesis will be optimal under certain light intensities. Light intensities higher than 
	optimal may cause proteins to denature, thus halting photosynthesis. The same is true for 
	temperature. In the presence of mass quantities of CO2, rate of photosynthesis will level 
	off, because the plant can only take in so much CO2

8.1.1

Prophase I - Chromosomes begin to condense. In a process called synapsis, homologous chromosomes come together as pairs, forming a tetrad of four chromatids. This is where crossing over occurs. Chromosomes then begin to migrate toward the metaphase plate.

	Metaphase I - Chromosomes align in the middle of the plate in homologous pairs

Anaphase I - Spindle fibers separates homologous chromosomes, but sister chromatids remain attached.

	Telophase I - Chromosomes reach opposite poles of the cell.

	Prophase II - Chromosomes move toward metaphase II plate

Metaphase II - Chromosomes align on the metaphase plate, kinetochores of sister chromatids of each chromosome point towards opposite poles.

	Anaphase II - Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles

Telophase II - Nuclei develop at opposite poles and cytokenisis produces 4 haploid daughter cells.

8.1.2	Outline the process of over and the formation of chiasmata

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I to the intertwining of chromosomes

8.1.5	State Mendel’s Law of independent Assortment

	States that each pair of alleles will segregate independent during gamete formation

8.1.6	Explain the relationship between Mendel’s law of independent assortment and meiosis
	
Meiosis facilitates independent assortment because when chromosomes separate, the alleles on those chromosomes also separate independently. The law of independent assortment does not take into account alleles which can cross over.

8.3.1	State the difference between autosomes and ex chromosomes

Sex chromosomes are commonly referred to as X and Y chromosomes. The rest are autosomes. 

8.4.1	Define polygenic inheritance
	the addititive of affect of two or more gene loci an a single phenotypic trait

8.4.2	Explain the polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using two examples. One example must be human skin colour.
	
	Different shades of skin color. Eye color. Hair Color

13.1.1	Outline the wide diversity in the plant kingdom as exemplified by the structural differences between bryophytes, filicinophytes, coniferophytes and angiospermophytes

	bryophytes- mosses
	filicinophytes - ferns
	coniferophytes - cone producing
	angiospermophytes - flower producing

13.1.2  Draw a diagram to show the external parts of a named dicotyledonous plant
	Can’t draw. Look in your damn book.

13.1.4	Explain the relationship between the distribution of tissues in the leaf and the functions of these tissues

	See Figure 31.19 p 685
Waxy cuticle of epidermis prevents water loss. Stoma in epidermis allows gas exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside the leaf. Mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts specialized for photosynthesis. Air spaces are present for gas exchange to occur. Stomata are usually more numerous on the bottom surface than on top to prevetnw ater loss. Water transport is accomplished through vascular tissue (Xylem and Phloem), which also serves as a skeleton that supports the ground tissue of the leaf. 

13.1.5	Outline four adaptations of xerophytes
	Small thick leaves which limit water loss by reducing surface area relative to volume. A 
thicker cuticle, stomata are concentrated on the lower leaf surface, shedding of leaves during dry months.

13.1.6	Outline two structural adaptations of hydrophytes
	Couldn’t find........

13.2.2	Describe the process of mineral ion uptake into roots by active transport

There are selective transport proteins of the plasma membrane and the tonoplast that enable root cells to extract certain mineral ions.

13.2.3	Explain the process of water uptake by root epidermis cells and its movement by the sympastic and apoplastic pathways across the root to the xylem

The Hydrophilic cell walls, in contact with those of the root cortex, provide access to the apoplastic pathway across the cortex. Minerals extracted from the apoplast by cortical cells enter the sympastic pathway.

D.3.1	Describe the evidence for evolution as shown by the geographical distribution of livign organisims, including the distribution of placental, marsupial and montreme animals

D.3.4	Define half-life

	The time it takes for half of a radioactive element to decay

D.3.6	Outline the paleontological evidence for evolution using one example
	Skeletal remains of what is believed to be ancestors of modern humans have been found

D.3.7	Explain the biochemical evidence provided by the universality of DNA and protein structures for the common ancestry of living organisms

All living organisms have DNA in some form. Also, there are many proteins that are common throughout many living organisms, suggesting that a common ancestor may have existed.

D.3.8	Discuss how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny
	phylogeny- the evolutionary history of a species

Similarities and differences in common molecules shared between organisms can be a good indicator of evolution. For example. Human and ape DNA differs only by a few base pairs, indicating that the two may have shared a common ancestor. This is also true with plants and their chlorophyll

D.3.9 Explain how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock
Gradual change in a substance or compound within an organism over time can indicate evolution. Through this, scientists have determined that all plants may share a common ancestor in a certain type of algae due to chemical changes in chlorophyll over time.

D.3.1.0      Explain the evidence for evolution provided by homologous anatomical structures,       including vertebrate embryos and the pentadactyl limb

The pendtactyl limb is the basic form of a vertebrate limb consisting typically of five digits linked to a parallel pair of bones which in turn are linked to a girdle by a single bone to produce a characteristic 5-2-1 structure. Most vertebrates have this same limb structure. Also vestigial structures (the coccyx may have been a tailbone). Also, many vertebrate embryos bear a resemblance to one another during the early stages of life. This suggests that all these organisms may have shared a common ancestor.

D.3.1.1	Outline two modern examples of observed evolution.

The change in size of the beaks of Galapagos finches varies from generation to generation according to which nuts are readily available. This is due to the fact that birds with the optimal size beak for cracking the most plentiful nut were better equipped for survival, and thus survived and passed on their genes to the offspring.

Moths in England went from mostly white to mostly black during the industrial revolution due to natural selection

D.4.1	State the full classification of human beings from kingdom to sub-species
Animalia
Chordata
Mamalia
Primate
Homininae
Homo
Sapien
Cromagnon

D.4.2 	Discus the major physical features, such as the adaptations for tree life, that define humans as primates.

Limber shoulder joints, opposable thumb, eyes close together, excellent eye hand coordination, single births.

D.4.7	Discuss the origin and consequences of bipedalism and increase in brain size
	
Bipedalism allowed early primates to grasp objects at higher elevation. Increased brain size allowed for better thinking and use of simple tools

D.4.8	Outline the difference between genetic and cultural evolution
Genetic evolution involves a change in the genetic makeup of a species, cultural evolution does not.

D.5.7	Discuss the definition of the term species
	Species - a potentially interbreeding population having a common gene pool

D.6.1	Describe and adaptation in terms of the change in frequency of a gene’s alleles

	In concordance with the principle of natural selection, the organism best suited to survive 
in an environment will be the one to survive and subsequently proliferate, thus distributing the genes for the advantageous characteristic which allowed it to survive. Thus, as the adaptation spreads, the frequency of the gene’s alleles will increase. Initially, in a case where there are only two alleles for one particular gene, the two alleles or said to be in equilibrium. Adaptation will lead to the increased frequency of one allele and the decreased frequency of the other

D.6.2 Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg equation is derived
It’s really long explanation. Its on page 419 if you want to look. I think Mrs. Meyer gave us a shorter explanation, but I didn’t write it down.

D.6.5	State the Hardy-Weinberg principle and the conditions under which it applies
The Hardy Weinberg principle states that the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a populations gene pool remain constant over the generations unless acted upon by agents other than sexual recombination. The population must be large, with random mating and a constant allele frequency over time, as well as no allele specific mortality, no mutation, and no emigration or immigration.